Download sherman_D and P PPT Chapter 15

5th Edition
Psychology
Stephen F. Davis
Emporia State University
Joseph J. Palladino
University of Southern Indiana
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Cynthia K. Shinabarger Reed
Tarrant County College
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Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
15-1
Chapter 15
5th Edition
Social Psychology:
The Individual in
Society
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15-2
Social Psychology and Culture
• Social psychology examines the causes,
types, and consequences of human
interaction.
• Human interactions do not occur in
isolation; they occur in a specific cultural
context.
• Researchers are sometimes guilty of
ethnocentrism; they disregard cultural
differences and see other cultures as an
extension of their own “superior” culture.
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Social Psychology and Culture
• Because culture can influence the type of
research problem we choose to
investigate, the nature of our research
hypothesis, and the selection of the
variables we choose to manipulate and
record, researchers must guard against
ethnocentrism.
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Social Psychology and Culture
• Individualism is defined as placing one’s
own goals above those of the group.
• Collectivism is defined as placing group
goals above individual goals.
• The degree of individualism or collectivism
in a culture can influence many aspects of
behavior, such as interpersonal relations,
self-concept, parenting practices, selfesteem, and emotional expression.
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Social Psychology and Culture
• Because cultures vary so widely, social
psychologists need to conduct crosscultural studies to determine whether the
results of research conducted in one
culture can be generalized to other
cultures.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Impression formation is the process of
developing an opinion about another
person.
• In addition to forming impressions of
others, we also make judgments, called
attributions, about the reasons for or
causes of this person’s behavior.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• The process of impression formation
requires an actor and a perceiver.
• The views and thoughts of the perceiver
and the appearance and behaviors of the
actor influence the impressions that are
formed.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• A stereotype is a set of beliefs about members
of a particular group.
• Stereotypes can be either positive or negative.
• In-group stereotypes refer to the stereotypes
that we have about people who are in the same
group(s) we belong to; they typically are positive
stereotypes.
• Out-group stereotypes tend to be negative and
describe others in such terms as “them” or
“those people.”
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Stereotypes reduce the amount of information
that must be processed.
• There are two reasons for the persistence of
stereotypes.
• First, if we believe that a group of people
possesses certain characteristics, we may
selectively note behaviors that are consistent
with those characteristics and fail to notice
behaviors that are inconsistent.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• The second reason that stereotypes are
durable involves the effects of our own
reactions and behaviors on the individuals
in question.
• When your behaviors influence others to
respond the way you expect, a selffulfilling prophecy is at work.
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Robert Rosenthal & Lenore Jacobson
• Pygmalion in the Classroom
– 1st through 6th grade students
– Oakland California Schools
• Out growth of earlier inter-species
research on “Experimenter Bias Effects”
– Humans and rats
• Clever Hans study: Pfungst and Stumpf
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ROSENTHAL & JACOBSON
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Some self-disclosure fosters a positive
impression, but excessive self-disclosure
early in a relationship may result in a
negative first impression.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
•
•
Four features of the actor have been
shown to influence impression formation.
Those features are
1) physical appearance,
2) style and content of speech,
3) nonverbal mannerisms and nonverbal
communication, and
4) the perceiver’s prior information about the
actor.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
•
•
The “beautiful is good” stereotype
assumes that attractive people have
positive characteristics—they are witty
and intelligent and have pleasing
personalities.
Therefore attractive people can be
expected to make better impressions.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
•
•
•
With regard to impression formation, an
actor’s style of speech is important.
Among the aspects of speech that are
influential are speed, volume, and
inflections (variations).
The content of speech is also important.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
•
•
Research on self-disclosure, the amount
of personal information a person is willing
to share with others, indicates that the
more a person reveals, the more positive
the impression others form.
However, too much self-disclosure early in
a relationship can create a negative
impression.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
•
•
•
Nonverbal communication plays an
important role in determining initial
impressions.
Information that is available to you before
you meet someone can affect your
impression of that person.
The activation of a stereotype can either
enhance or decrease (stereotype threat)
an individual’s performance.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Attribution is the process by which we
decide why certain events occurred or why a
particular person acted in a certain manner.
• With internal attributions, behavior is seen as
being caused by factors that reside within a
person.
• With external attributions, the causes of
behavior are viewed as residing outside an
individual.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Deciding whether the cause of an event or
behavior is internal or external has a major
impact on the attributional process.
• According to Harold Kelley, factors such as
distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus
influence our decisions about internal or external
causes.
• Distinctiveness refers to the extent to which a
person’s responses vary from situation to
situation.
• The greater the variability, the higher the
distinctiveness.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Our confidence in making attributions regarding
internal or external causes is greatest when the
behaviors we observe are consistent.
• Consensus refers to the reactions of other
people to the external object or behavior in
question.
• When consensus is high and everyone views the
behavior or object in the same manner, we tend
to make external attributions; when it is low and
no one agrees about the behavior or object in
question, we tend to make internal attributions.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• The fundamental attribution error is the
tendency to attribute behaviors to internal
causes.
• An actor-perceiver bias can influence
attributions.
• Perceivers are more likely to make internal
attributions while actors are more likely to
make external attributions.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• The self-serving bias is the tendency to
make internal attributions when we are
successful and external attributions when
we fail.
• Another aspect of the self-serving bias
involves the just world belief.
• The just world belief is the belief that bad
things happen to bad people and good
things happen to good people.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Attitudes are evaluative judgments about
objects, people, and thoughts that include
affective, knowledge, and behavioral
components.
• Attitudes can serve ego-defensive,
adjustment, and knowledge functions.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Attitudes protect us from threats to the self
or ego.
• Attitudes can maximize reinforcements
and minimize punishments from the
environment.
• Attitudes can help bring order and
meaning to one’s world.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Self-reports are often used to measure
attitudes, but this method is far from
simple.
• The types of questions asked, as well as
the way they are asked, can influence the
responses.
• Attitudes can be measured by Likert
scales and evaluation of observed
behaviors.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Likert scales are
questionnaires
that require
participants to
indicate the extent
to which they
agree or disagree
with particular
statements.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• The saying “Actions speak louder than words”
indicates that we place considerable value on
the behavioral component of attitudes.
• Attitudes can be acquired through the process of
classical conditioning, in which a conditioned
stimulus (CS) comes to elicit a conditioned
response (CR).
• When classical conditioning takes place, we also
develop an attitude toward the CS; we either like
it or dislike it.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Operant conditioning can also serve as a
basis for the establishment of attitudes.
• Behaviors that result in reinforcement
produce positive attitudes, whereas
behaviors that result in punishment
produce negative attitudes.
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How We View Others and Their
Behavior
• Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person
experiences an inconsistency between thoughts
and behaviors.
• Because cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant
or aversive state, we seek to reduce it and
instead create cognitive consonance—the state
in which behaviors and thoughts are compatible.
• Thus the formation of new attitudes is involved in
the reduction of cognitive dissonance.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Attraction is the extent to which we like or
dislike other people.
• Proximity to others is positively related to
the establishment of friendships; people
who live or work near us tend to become
our friends.
• Proximity is an important determinant of
attraction because it encourages
interaction and repeated exposure.
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Interpersonal Relations
• We are attracted to people who arouse
positive feeling in us; we avoid individuals
who arouse negative feelings.
• We like people who reward us and tend to
dislike or avoid those who do not.
• We are also attracted to and make friends
with people who are similar to ourselves.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Friendship is a form of interpersonal
attraction that is governed by an implicit
set of rules.
• We are more likely to form friendships with
people who are willing to disclose
information about themselves.
• Our level of self-disclosure evolves
through several stages as a friendship
develops.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Passionate love is a transitory form of
love characterized by strong emotional
reactions, sexual desires, and fantasies.
• Companionate love is characterized by a
long-term relationship and commitment.
• Sex roles can influence the love
relationship.
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Interpersonal Relations
• A longitudinal view of the love relationship is
provided through the study of marital
satisfaction.
• Typically, marital satisfaction is described as a
U-shaped function; satisfaction is high during the
early years of marriage, decreases during the
middle years, and increases during the later
years.
• The decrease in satisfaction during the middle
years of marriage is associated with having and
raising children; the responsibilities of raising
children can take a significant toll on a marriage.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Interdependence theory takes into account the
costs and rewards in a relationship, as well as
the available alternatives.
• Each person develops a comparison level
(CL); this CL is the general outcome you expect
from a relationship.
• Your CL is based on your past experiences and
the experiences of others in similar situations.
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Interpersonal Relations
• You are satisfied with a relationship when
the outcomes are equal to or above your
CL.
• You become dissatisfied when the
outcomes fall below your CL.
• People leave a relationship when the
outcomes fall below their CLs for other
relationships.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Prosocial behavior is behavior that
benefits society or helps others.
• Altruism refers to helping behavior
performed with no anticipation of reward.
• Higher levels of prosocial behavior are
positively correlated with empathy, social
skills, and extraversion.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Bystander
effect: The
tendency for a
group of
bystanders to be
less likely than
an individual to
provide
assistance to a
person in trouble.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Among the factors that determine the
bystander effect are degree of danger,
embarrassment, not knowing how to help,
and diffusion of responsibility.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Aggression is physical or psychological
behavior that is performed with the intent of
doing harm.
• Hostile aggression is behavior that is
performed with the specific intent of harming
another person.
• Instrumental aggression is aggression that
causes harm in the process of achieving another
goal.
• Ethologists believe that at least some forms of
aggression are inherited.
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Interpersonal Relations
• The frustration-aggression hypothesis
predicts that frustration, or being blocked
from attaining a goal, results in
aggression.
• In addition to frustration, the presence of
anger and certain cues may be necessary
for aggression to occur.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Terrorist activities fall within the realm of
aggression.
• Terrorism is politically motivated violence,
perpetrated by individuals, groups or statesponsored agents, intended to instill
feelings of terror and helplessness in a
population in order to influence decision
making and to change behavior.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Moghaddam indicates that “Ultimately, terrorism is
a moral problem with psychological
underpinnings; the challenge is to prevent
disaffected youth and others from becoming
engaged in the morality of terrorist organizations.”
• Davis addressed the topic of combating terrorism
and suggested that international psychology, “the
social psychology of international relations,” could
(and should) play a role in countering terrorism.
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Interpersonal Relations
• The vast majority of workplace aggression
is perpetrated by members of the public or
by organizational outsiders.
• One of the key factors in workplace
aggression is the assailant’s relationship to
the victim.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Many marriages are characterized by
abuse and aggression, which is most often
directed toward the wife.
• The dramatic increase in the incidence of
rape indicates that such aggression and
abuse are not limited to marital
relationships.
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Interpersonal Relations
• The increased availability and tolerance of
pornography, especially pornography
depicting violence and domination, are
correlated with the increase in sexual
assaults.
• Many unreported rapes fall into the
category of date or acquaintance rape.
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Interpersonal Relations
• Date rape appears to result from
misperceptions, especially on the part of
men, about the acceptability of sexual
relations in certain situations.
• Heavy alcohol consumption is another
factor that often leads to date rape on
college campuses.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• Persuasion is the use of social influence
to cause other people to change their
attitudes and behaviors.
• The expertise, attractiveness, and
trustworthiness of the source of a
message are important determinants of
persuasion.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• The sleeper effect occurs when the
message and its source become
detached.
• Messages from sources low in expertise,
attractiveness, and trustworthiness may
increase in effectiveness due to the
sleeper effect.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• The most persuasive messages are those
that;
– attract attention,
– draw conclusions (if the audience is passively
involved),
– differ only moderately from the attitudes of the
audience,
– are the last message heard (if action is
required immediately), and
– are presented on a one-to-one basis.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• Naive audiences that are unaware of the
intent of persuasive messages are more
likely to be influenced by these messages.
• If the audience has previously been
exposed to a mild form of the persuasive
message, persuasion will be more difficult.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• When you pay attention to the content of the
message, the central route of persuasion is
being used.
• If you find that the persuasive message is not
especially relevant to you and you do not enjoy
thinking about its content, then you are more
likely to attend to the attributes of the presenter
(for example, credibility or attractiveness).
• When you pay attention to these attributes,
persuasion is following the secondary route.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• Obedience is the initiating or changing of
behavior in response to a direct command
of an authority.
• In cases in which obedience will result in
harm to another person, obedience
increases with proximity to the source of
the commands but decreases with
proximity to the victim.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• If the source of the
commands takes
responsibility for any
harm resulting from
obedience to those
commands, the
likelihood of
obedience is high.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• Conformity results from indirect social
pressure on an individual to change his or
her behaviors and thoughts.
• The nature of the authority behind
pressures for conformity is not as obvious
as it is in commands for obedience.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• Selecting the
matching line seems
simple!
• However, 30% of
Asch’s participants
chose incorrectly to
conform with the
group.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• The decisions of a group may be riskier
than those of individuals.
• The risky-shift phenomenon is
attributable to the group polarization
effect, in which the original attitudes of the
group's members are enhanced or
amplified during group discussions.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• Compliance refers to behavior that is
initiated or changed as a result of a
request.
• The foot-in-the-door effect is a
phenomenon in which a person who has
agreed to a small request is more likely to
comply with a subsequent larger request.
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Social Influences on Behavior
• In the door-in-the-face technique people are
first presented with an extremely large request,
which they likely will refuse, and then they are
presented with a more reasonable request that
they are more likely to accept.
• The compliance technique known as reciprocity
involves doing something for someone else to
make that person feel obligated to do something
in return.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• The presence of
other people
increases arousal,
which may result
in enhanced ability
to perform a
desired response.
• This effect is
known as social
facilitation.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Social loafing is the tendency to exert
less effort when working on a group task if
individual contributions are not evaluated.
• Social loafing can be reduced by making
the task more involving, challenging,
appealing, or competitive.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Coactors are other people who are present and
are engaging in the same behaviors as an
individual at the same time.
• When there is no audience and only coactors
are present, deindividuation may occur.
• Deindividuation is a phenomenon in which the
presence of a group results in a loss of personal
identity and a decrease in responsibility.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Two types of leaders emerge in a group.
• One leader is concerned with the tasks
confronting the group (task-oriented); the
other is concerned with the interpersonal
needs of the group's members (sociallyoriented).
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Brainstorming refers to free expression
of ideas by the members of a group.
• Researchers have shown that the same
number of individuals working
independently actually generate more
ideas than a brainstorming group.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Groupthink is the tendency to make decisions
intended primarily to promote the harmony of the
group.
• Groupthink occurs most often in very cohesive
groups that are insulated from other opinions
and groups, feel that they are invulnerable, have
a respected and directive leader, and are placed
under time constraints to reach a decision
concerning a threat to the group.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• In these circumstances groups tend to
make premature and poorly considered
decisions.
• Group members and leaders can take
several steps to help avoid being snared
into the groupthink trap.
• First, the leader should strive to remain
impartial and nondirective.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Second, opinions should be gathered from
people outside the group.
• Finally, the group should use secret ballots
when making decisions in order to ensure
that group members express their true
feelings.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Prejudice is judging a person on the basis
of stereotypes about the group to which
the person belongs.
• Prejudice may be reduced through contact
among members of different groups.
• Discrimination consists of behaviors
directed at members of a particular group
that affect them adversely.
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The Individual as Part of a Social
Group
• Prejudice frequently justifies social
standing or maintains self-esteem.
• Because it makes us feel superior,
prejudice can also satisfy our emotional
need for status.
• Gordon Allport proposed that “equal status
contact between majority and minority
groups in the pursuit of common goals”
would reduce prejudice.
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