Download The Human Body: An Orientation

8/24/13
1
An Overview of Anatomy
PART 1
The Human Body:
An Orientation
•  Anatomy
•  The study of the structure of the human body
•  Physiology
•  The study of body function
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by
Leslie Hendon
University of Alabama, Birmingham
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Overview of Anatomy
An Overview of Anatomy
•  Subdisciplines of anatomy
•  Other branches of anatomy
•  Gross anatomy
•  Developmental anatomy
•  Regional anatomy
•  Embryology
•  Systemic anatomy
•  Pathological anatomy (pathology)
•  Surface anatomy
•  Radiographic anatomy
•  Microscopic anatomy (histology)
•  Functional morphology
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Overview of Anatomy
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
•  Anatomical terminology
•  Chemical level
•  Based on ancient Greek or Latin
•  Provides standard nomenclature worldwide
•  Atoms form molecules
•  Cellular level
•  Cells and their functional subunits
•  Tissue level
•  A group of cells performing a common function
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
8/24/13
Figure 1.1 Recognizing connections between structural levels leads to better understanding of organismal function.
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
•  Organ level
•  A discrete structure made up of more than one
tissue
•  Organ system level
•  Organs working together for a common purpose
•  Organismal level
•  The result of all simpler levels working in unison
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Integumentary System
• 
Forms external body covering
• 
Protects deeper tissues from injury
• 
Synthesizes vitamin D
• 
Site of cutaneous receptors
• 
(pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands
Skeletal System
• 
Protects and supports body organs
• 
Provides a framework for muscles
• 
Blood cells formed within bones
• 
Stores minerals
Muscular System
• 
Allows manipulation of environment
• 
Locomotion
• 
Facial expression
• 
Maintains posture
• 
Produces heat
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Respiratory System
• 
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
• 
Removes carbon dioxide
• 
Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in the lungs
Digestive System
•  Breaks down food into absorbable units
•  Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
Urinary System
•  Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
•  Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
Male & Female Reproductive Systems
• 
• 
• 
• 
Overall function is to produce offspring
Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
Mammary glands produce milk
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nervous System
• 
Fast-acting control system
• 
Responds to internal and external changes
Endocrine System
•  Glands secrete hormones that regulate:
•  Growth
•  Reproduction
•  Nutrient use
Cardiovascular System
• 
Blood vessels transport blood
• 
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
• 
Blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
• 
It also carries nutrients and wastes
Lymphatic System/Immunity
• 
• 
• 
• 
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system
Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)
Mounts attack against foreign substances in the body
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Scale: Length, Volume, and Weight
•  System of measurement in anatomy is the
metric system
•  Meter
•  Micrometer
•  Liter
•  Milliliter
•  Kilogram
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
2
8/24/13
Gross Anatomy—An Introduction
Gross Anatomy—An Introduction
•  Regional and directional terms
•  Regional terms
•  Anatomical position—a common visual
reference point
•  Person stands erect with feet together and
eyes forward
•  Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs
pointed away from the body
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
•  Axis of body – head, neck, and trunk
•  Appendicular region
•  Appendages
•  Standard directional terms
•  Are used by professionals to describe location
of one body part in relation to another
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3a Anatomical position and regional terms.
Figure 1.3b Anatomical position and regional terms.
Axial region
Cephalic (head)
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Oral
Mental
Cervical (neck)
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Mammary
Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Appendicular
region
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Manus (hand)
Pollex
Palmar
Digital
Manus (hand)
Metacarpal
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
Fibular or peroneal
Pubic (genital)
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Metatarsal
Digital
Hallux
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
•  Axial region
Anterior/Ventral
Cephalic
Otic
Occipital (back
of head)
Cervical
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral
Gluteal
Perineal
(between anus
and external
genitalia)
Lower limb
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular or peroneal
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal
Plantar
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Posterior/Dorsal
Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 2)
Regional and Directional Terms
•  Directional terms are used to explain precise
location of body structure in relation to another
body structure
•  Terms are paired with opposite
•  Superior/inferior
•  Anterior/posterior
•  Medial/lateral
•  Superficial/deep
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
8/24/13
Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (2 of 2)
Body Planes and Sections
•  Frontal (coronal) plane
•  Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and
posterior parts
•  Transverse plane
•  Runs horizontally and divides body into superior
and inferior parts
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.
Body Planes and Sections
Median section
(midsagittal)
Frontal plane
•  Sagittal planes
Median
(midsagittal)
plane
•  Are vertical
•  Divide the body into right and left parts
Transverse
plane
•  Median (midsagittal) plane
•  Sagittal plane that runs along the midline
•  Parasagittal planes
Rectum
Intestines
Vertebral
column
Frontal section
(through torso)
Transverse section
(through torso, inferior view)
•  A sagittal plane offset from the midline
Spleen
Liver
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Subcutaneous
fat layer
Liver
Stomach
Left and
right lungs Heart
Arm
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Spinal cord
Aorta
Pancreas
Body wall
Figure 1.5a Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.
The Human Body Plan
•  Tube-within-a-tube
•  Bilateral symmetry
•  Dorsal hollow nerve cord
Inner tube
Dorsal hollow nerve tube
Segmented outer tube
Notochord
Notochord
Spinal
cord
Muscle segments
(myotomes)
Brain
•  Notochord and vertebrae
•  Segmentation
•  Pharyngeal pouches
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pharyngeal
pouches
Heart
Digestive tube
Generalized vertebrate
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
4
8/24/13
Figure 1.5b Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.
Inner tube
Dorsal hollow nerve tube
Segmented outer tube
Notochord
Pharyngeal
pouches
Figure 1.5c Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.
Brain
Pharynx
Lung
bud
Spinal
cord
Muscle
segments
(muscles
between
ribs)
Spinal
cord
Notochord
Heart
Vertebrae
Muscle
segments
(myotomes)
Brain
Heart
Digestive tube
Disc
between
vertebrae
Digestive
tube
Inner tube
Dorsal hollow nerve tube
Segmented outer tube
Notochord
Human embryo; 5 weeks postconception
Adult human
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Cavities and Membranes
Body Cavities and Membranes
•  Dorsal body cavity
•  Ventral body cavity
•  Cranial cavity
•  Vertebral cavity
•  Thoracic cavity—divided into three parts
•  Two lateral parts, each containing a lung
surrounded by a pleural cavity
•  Mediastinum—contains the heart
surrounded by the pericardial sac
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6a Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.
Dorsal body cavity
Body Cavities and Membranes
•  Ventral body cavity—continued
•  Abdominopelvic cavity—divided into two
parts
•  Abdominal cavity—contains the liver,
stomach, kidneys, and other organs
Ventral body cavity
Cranial
cavity
(contains
brain)
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Dorsal
body
cavity
Vertebral
cavity
(contains
spinal
cord)
•  Pelvic cavity—contains the bladder, some
reproductive organs, and rectum
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
Lateral view
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
5
8/24/13
Figure 1.6b Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Cranial
cavity
•  Serous cavities—a slitlike space lined by
a serous membrane
Vertebral
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Superior
mediastinum
•  Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
Pleural
cavity
•  Parietal serosa
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Diaphragm
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Cavities and Membranes
Ventral
body
cavity
(thoracic
and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Anterior view
•  Outer wall of the cavity
•  Visceral serosa
•  Covers the visceral organs
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7a The serous cavities and their associated membranes.
Body Cavities and Membranes
Lung
•  Serous fluid
Ribs
Parietal pleura
•  Produced by both layers of the serous
membranes
Pleural cavity
with serous fluid
Visceral pleura
Diaphragm
Serosae associated with the lungs: pleura
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7b The serous cavities and their associated membranes.
Figure 1.7c The serous cavities and their associated membranes.
Heart
Anterior
Parietal
pericardium
Pericardial
cavity with
serous fluid
Visceral
pericardium
Serosae associated with the heart:
pericardium
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Visceral
peritoneum
Peritoneal
cavity (with
serous fluid)
Stomach
Liver
Parietal
peritoneum
Kidney
(retroperitoneal)
Wall of
body trunk
Serosae associated with the abdominal viscera:
peritoneum
Posterior
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
6
8/24/13
Figure 1.7d The serous cavities and their associated membranes.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
•  Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into
nine regions
Outer balloon wall
(comparable to parietal serosa
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Inner balloon wall
(comparable to visceral serosa)
•  Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen
into four quadrants
•  Right upper and left upper quadrants
Model of the serous membranes and
serous cavity
•  Right lower and left lower quadrants
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
9 Abdominal Regions
4 Abdominal Quadrants
Diaphragm
Spleen
Stomach
Liver
Right
Left
Epigastric
hypochondriac
hypochondriac
region
region
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
lumbar
region
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac
(inguinal)
(pubic)
(inguinal)
region
region
region
Gallbladder
Transverse colon
of large intestine
Descending colon
of large intestine
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Ascending colon of
large intestine
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
Urinary bladder
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the
superficial organs
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Figure 1.8a, b
Microscopic Anatomy
(c) The four abdominopelvic quadrants
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Microscopic Anatomy
Cytoplasm
•  Microscopy—examining small structures
through a microscope
•  Light microscopy illuminates tissue with a beam
of light (lower magnification)
Figure 1.8c
Cell nuclei
Extracellular
material
(a) Light micrograph
(330×)
•  Electron microscopy uses beams of electrons
(higher magnification)
(c) Scanning electron micrograph,
artificially colored (2900×)
(b) Transmission electron micrograph,
artificially colored (870×)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9a–c
7
8/24/13
Microscopic Anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy
•  Preparing human tissue for microscopy
•  Scanning electron microscopy
•  Specimen is fixed (preserved) and
sectioned
•  Specimen is stained to distinguish
anatomical structures
•  Heavy metal salt stain—deflects electrons
in the beam to different extents
•  Artifacts
•  Minor distortions of preserved tissues
•  Acidic stain—negatively charged dye
molecules
•  Not exactly like living tissues and organs
•  Basic stain—positively charged dye
molecules
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.10 X-ray images.
Clinical Anatomy—An Introduction to Medical
Imaging Techniques
•  X ray—electromagnetic waves of very
short length
•  Best for visualizing bones and abnormal
dense structures
Clavicles
(collarbones)
Ribs
Air in lungs
(black)
Heart
Diaphragm
Radiograph of the chest
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lower GI with barium
contrast medium, normal
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.11 Computed tomography (CT).
Advanced X-Ray Techniques
Right
•  Computed (axial) tomography (CT or
CAT)
•  Takes successive X rays around a
person s full circumference
View
Left
Liver
Stomach
Colon
Inferior
vena cava
Aorta
Spleen
•  Computer translates recorded information
into a detailed picture of the body section
Left kidney
Thoracic
vertebra
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
8
8/24/13
Figure 1.12 Digital subtraction angiography (DSA).
Advanced X-Ray Techniques
Narrowing
of artery
Artery
supplying
heart
•  Positron emission tomography (PET)—
forms images by detecting radioactive
isotopes injected into the body
•  Sonography (ultrasound imaging)—body
is probed with pulses of high-frequency
sound waves that echo off the body s
tissues
•  Imaging technique used to determine the
age of a developing fetus
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.13 Positron Emission Tomography (PET).
Figure 1.14 Ultrasound image of a fetus in the uterus.
Brain
Heart
Liver
Kidney
Colon
Urinary
bladder
Head
Body
PET scan before
treatment. Tumors visible
in right breast and in liver
PET scan after
treatment
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.15 Magnetic resonance image (MRI).
Advanced X-Ray Techniques
•  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—
produces high-quality images of
soft tissues
Normal knee, meniscus intact
•  Distinguishes body tissues based on
relative water content
Injured knee, torn meniscus
MRI of knee, sagittal section.
Arrow indicates meniscus.
Note tear in meniscus in
bottom image.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Volume rendering of an MRI of the head
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
9