Download Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology Essential Cell Biology

Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology Unity and Diversity of Cells I.
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Cells are often referred to in a __________________ sense, but in reality, there are between 10 and 100 million distinct species, all of which having some __________________ to their cells There is tremendous variety in the __________________ and __________________ of cells a. Cells can vary from a diameter of less than one __________________ (µm = 10‐6) to up to a __________________ (mm = 10‐3) b. Possible cell shapes are almost __________________ c. Cells are also incredibly varied in their __________________ requirements d. Some cells live __________________ and others work together to form __________________ organisms Cells do share common __________________ a. All cells are composed of the same sorts of __________________ that participate in the same types of chemical __________________ i. All cells have __________________ information stored in polymer chains called __________________ ii. All cells __________________ this information into RNA iii. All cells __________________ this molecule into proteins iv. __________________ dominate the structure and behavior of cells All cells are the result of the __________________ of a previously existing cell a. DNA and other cell parts are __________________ and then a cell divides into two new __________________ cells b. The copying of DNA is not perfect so occasionally the instructions in the DNA are changed by __________________ i. Mutations can be __________________, __________________, or __________________ ii. __________________ acts upon these mutations and this is the basis of __________________ c. It is estimated that all present day cells have inherited their fundamental similarities from a common __________________ cell that lived between 3.5 and 3.8 __________________ years ago A cell’s __________________ provides all of the instructions for its form, function, and behavior a. A genome is a collection of all of the cell’s __________________ information (DNA) The Procaryotic Cell I.
Procaryotes are cells that do not contain a __________________ or any other membrane bound internal organelles a. From the Greek words pro, meaning __________________ and karyon, meaning __________________ b. They are typically spherical, rod‐shaped, or corkscrew‐shaped and usually only a few __________________ long c. Often they are protected by a tough coat called a __________________ d. Procaryotes often reproduce very quickly (in as little as __________________) by dividing in two i. This also provides them with the ability to __________________ very quickly Essential Cell Biology Chapter 1 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology II. Procaryotic cells are the most __________________ group of cells a. They are found in nearly all possible __________________ on earth b. They can be __________________ or __________________ and almost every type of __________________ material is useful to some type of procaryote i. Some procaryotes can even live entirely on __________________ compounds and some are capable of performing __________________ III. Within the procaryotes, there are two domains called __________________ (or eubacteria) and __________________ a. Bacteria and archaea are as different or in some cases even more different from each other as procaryotes are from __________________ b. The most familiar procaryotes are the __________________ c. The archaea are a more __________________ group that are common in very harsh and extreme __________________ The Eucaryotic Cell I. In general, eucaryotic cells are __________________ and more __________________ than procaryotes II. Some live __________________, but all of the more complex __________________ organisms (plants, animals, and fungi) are composed of eucaryotic cells III. Eucaryote means “__________________ nucleus” so all eucaryotic cells contain a nucleus as well as other membrane bound internal organelles a. The __________________ stores the genetic information (__________________) of the cell i. Usually a __________________ organelle enclosed in two membranes called the nuclear __________________ b. The __________________ generate useable __________________ for the cell from food i. Each mitochondrion has two membranes; the inner membrane being __________________ into the interior of the organelle ii. Mitochondria contain small amounts of their own __________________, unique from the genome of the cell 1. The current theory is that mitochondria were once independent __________________ cells where at one point engulfed by an ancestral cell and created a __________________ relationship iii. Mitochondria carry out the process of cellular __________________ where food molecules (like sugars) are __________________ to produce __________________ which is the primary chemical energy source for the cell c. __________________ capture solar energy for the cell i. Chloroplasts are large __________________ organelles that are only found in plants and algae ii. They contain __________________ molecules that trap the energy of sunlight and use it to produce high energy __________________ molecules from carbon __________________ and water 1. This process is called __________________ iii. Chloroplasts also contain small amounts of their own DNA so it is believed they too were once __________________ photosynthetic procaryotes that were engulfed by a eucaryotic ancestor Essential Cell Biology Chapter 1 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology d. There are also many __________________ membrane organelles in eucaryotic cells i. The __________________ (ER) is a series of connected membrane sacs where molecules the cell will __________________ are made 1. The __________________ ER contains embedded ribosomes and is primarily responsible for making __________________ 2. The __________________ ER contains no ribosomes and is primarily responsible for the production of __________________ based molecules ii. The __________________ is a series of flattened membrane sacs that receives materials from the ER and then often __________________ them before directing them out of the cell using vesicles iii. __________________ are irregularly shaped organelles that carry out intracellular __________________ 1. Nutrients are __________________ into the cell and __________________ molecules are broken down or removed from the cell iv. __________________ are small vesicles that isolate hydrogen __________________ from the rest of the cell 1. Hydrogen peroxide is important for many reactions but is dangerous to the rest of the cell because it is so __________________ v. __________________ are used to transport molecules between membrane bound organelles and used to import (__________________) and export (__________________) molecule from the cell e. The structure and support of the cell is due to the __________________ and the __________________ i. The cytoplasm is a concentrated __________________ gel which supports the cell and acts as the site of many chemical __________________ 1. The portion of the cytoplasm that is not inside any specific organelles is called the __________________ ii. The cytoskeleton is a series of protein __________________ and __________________ that are critical not only for the structure of the cell but also for __________________ within the cell iii. The cytoskeleton and cytoplasm are both __________________ and are in constant __________________ Essential Cell Biology Chapter 1 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology Molecules in Cells I.
Aside from __________________, nearly all of the molecules in a cell are based on the element __________________ (C) a. Carbon is a unique element because it has 4 __________________ and 4 __________________ in its outer shell b. This allows carbon to make very __________________ covalent bonds with other carbon atoms as well as with other atoms i. Carbon compounds can be __________________ or very __________________ and can be __________________, __________________, or include __________________ structures c. Molecules that contain both carbon and hydrogen are considered __________________ compounds II.
There are four families of small organic molecules in cells that typically serve as either building blocks (__________________) for larger molecules or serve as __________________ sources for the cell a. __________________ i. Sugars are the simplest compounds in a larger group called __________________ ii. The simplest sugars are called __________________ and have a general formula of (CH2O)n 1. In a simple sugar n is usually 3,4,5, or 6 iii. Two monosaccharides can be linked together to form __________________ and larger chains are called __________________ (3‐50) or __________________ (50+) iv. Sugars are built through __________________ reactions and broken down through __________________ reactions 1. Condensation reactions use an –OH group from each molecule and remove a __________________ molecule leaving a single O atom connecting the two molecules 2. Hydrolysis is the opposite reaction, where a water molecule is __________________ to reform the two individual –OH groups 3. Each monosaccharide has several __________________ –OH groups so chains of sugars can be branched or straight or ringed v. The primary role of sugars in the cell is to produce __________________ for the cell to use 1. Monosaccharides, like __________________, are broken down in cellular __________________ to produce ATP Essential Cell Biology Chapter 2 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology 2. Cells also produce __________________ molecules by combining glucose into long chains a. __________________ in animals and __________________ in plants vi. Sugars can also be combined into long chains to serve as structural molecules (__________________ and __________________) or they can be combined with proteins to make __________________ or lipids to form __________________ b. __________________ acids i. Fatty acid molecules have two distinct regions 1. There is a long __________________ hydrocarbon chain and a __________________ carboxyl group (‐COOH) 2. The carboxyl group is __________________ and is very reactive so most fatty acids covalently bond to other molecules 3. Fatty acids with carbon chains that have no __________________ bonds, and therefore __________________ hydrogen atoms, are called __________________ fatty acids a. The lack of double bonds in saturated fatty acids makes the hydrocarbon chains __________________ which makes them stack together easily and typically forming __________________ substances 4. Fatty acids chains with double bonds are called __________________ fatty acids and if there is more than one double bond it is called a __________________ fatty acid a. The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids makes the hydrocarbon chains __________________ which makes it difficult for them to stack together easily and therefore typically form __________________ substances ii. The most important function of fatty acids in cells is the formation of __________________ 1. When two fatty acids combine with a __________________ group and a __________________ molecule these phospholipids form __________________ that are the primary component of cellular __________________ iii. Fatty acids can also be combined into __________________ (fat) molecules which are used as energy storage molecules 1. Triglyceride molecules contain __________________ fatty acids bonded to one __________________ molecule 2. Triglycerides store about 6 time more useable __________________ than glucose c. __________________ acids i. Amino acids are molecules that contain a __________________ group (‐COOH) and an __________________ group (‐NH3) both linked to a central carbon called the __________________ 1. The α‐carbon also has a variable group called an __________________ that is attached to it which provides the __________________ in amino acids ii. Amino acids are combined together by cells to produce __________________ Essential Cell Biology Chapter 2 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology 1. Amino acids are bonded together __________________ by what is called a __________________ bond 2. The chain of amino acids is called a __________________ until it is folded into a functional protein iii. Proteins are produced from __________________ amino acids that are found in all living organisms 1. Some amino acids are __________________ and others are __________________ 2. Some amino acids are __________________ and others are __________________ 3. Some amino acids are __________________ and others are __________________ d. __________________ i. A __________________ is a molecule made up of a nitrogen containing ring linked to a 5‐carbon sugar 1. There are two sugars that can be used to make nucleosides; __________________ and __________________ ii. When one or more __________________ groups are added to a nucleoside, it is called a __________________ iii. The nitrogen containing rings are called __________________ and they fall into one of two families 1. __________________ a. All have a 6 member carbon ring b. __________________ (C), __________________ (T), and __________________ (U) 2. __________________ a. Have a second, 5 member ring fused to the 6 member ring b. __________________ (A) and __________________ (G) iv. The most fundamental role of nucleotides is to __________________ and __________________ biological information 1. Nucleotides serve as building blocks for long polymers called __________________ acids a. __________________ acid (DNA) and __________________ acid (RNA) b. These are critical molecules of __________________ and __________________ v. Nucleotides are also used as short term __________________ carriers 1. Generally these are __________________ and the most commonly used is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 2. The bonds between the multiple __________________ groups are very high energy bonds so when they are formed, energy is __________________ and when they are broken, energy is __________________ Macromolecules in Cells I.
__________________ are large carbon containing molecules that are abundant in cells Essential Cell Biology Chapter 2 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology II. Macromolecules are the __________________ that provide most of the __________________ and __________________ of the cell III. Macromolecules are __________________ constructed by covalently connecting the smaller __________________ a. __________________ are polymers of __________________ b. __________________ are polymers of __________________ acids c. __________________ are polymers of __________________ acids d. __________________ acids are polymers of __________________ IV.
Each unique macromolecule has a distinct shape and function, both of which are determined by the __________________ and __________________ of the monomers in the polymer V.
Many macromolecules are __________________ linked together to form molecular __________________ Essential Cell Biology Chapter 2 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology The Use of Energy By Cells I.
Cells have an extremely complex set of __________________ that occur at all times within them a. The sum total of all of the reactions within the cell is called __________________ i. There are two different __________________ of metabolic reactions 1. __________________ (or anabolic reactions) build __________________ molecules from smaller ones a. This __________________ energy because in order to make a chemical bond, energy must be stored in the bond 2. __________________ (or catabolic reactions) create __________________ molecules by breaking down larger ones a. This __________________ energy because in order to break a chemical bond, energy must be released from the bond II. Cells and living organisms depend on having __________________ and __________________ a. This is possible through the use of __________________ to maintain that order and organization b. __________________ organisms use __________________ (energy) to synthesize organic molecules i. All living things are part of a food __________________, or a series of energy __________________ ii. The base of every food chain is a __________________ organism and all other organisms get their energy either directly or indirectly from this first level iii. Photosynthesis involves the conversion of the sun’s __________________ energy into __________________ bond energy inside of cells 1. Photosynthetic organisms use the energy from the __________________ to combine carbon (from atmospheric CO2), hydrogen and oxygen (from H2O), and nitrogen (from ammonia and nitrates in the soil) into small molecules like __________________ acids, __________________, __________________, and __________________ acids 2. These small molecules are used by the photosynthetic organism for larger __________________ and for __________________ and can also become the food sources for other organisms c. All non‐photosynthetic organisms must obtain their organic molecules from eating other __________________ d. Cells obtain energy by the __________________ of organic molecules i. In order to __________________, __________________, and __________________, organisms must be able to get chemical bond energy into a useable form ii. Cells obtain energy from organic molecules by allowing __________________ to combine with the carbon and hydrogen molecules 1. This __________________ the hydrogen and carbon into H2O and CO2 respectively 2. This process is known as cellular __________________ iii. The useable form of energy created by cellular respiration is called __________ (adenosine triphosphate) Essential Cell Biology Chapter 3 Biotechnology Unit 2: Cellular Biology 1. ATP consists of an __________________ molecule connected to three inorganic __________________ (PO43‐) molecules 2. The reason ATP is such a good __________________ molecule of useable energy for the cell is because the phosphate to phosphate bonds are very __________________ in energy due to the strong negative charges a. An adenosine with one phosphate is called __________ (adenosine monophosphate) b. An adenosine with two phosphates is called __________ (adenosine diphosphate) 3. As energy is __________________ during cellular respiration, the cell creates ATP from ADP and an additional phosphate molecule 4. As energy is needed by a cell, it is __________________ by converting ATP into ADP and an additional phosphate molecule Essential Cell Biology Chapter 3