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http://historiaturon.wordpress.com UNIT 2 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION During the American War of Independence, 13 British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America fought for their independence from Great Britain. The main causes of the conflict were: - Ideological: The Enlightenment ideas of equality and liberty formed the basis for the independence movement. - Political: Great Britain refused to give the colonies representation in Parliament. This was where laws were passed, including laws related to colonial taxes. - Socio-economic: Prosperous middle-class colonist wanted control over their own commercial activities. The conflict started when the British government increased taxes. The American colonist refused to pay them and then began to arm themselves. Great Britain responded by ordering their armed forces into action, and the war broke out in 1775. The colonist proclaimed the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America on 4 July 1776. Great Britain finally recognised the independence of the new nation in 1783. This was a significant triumph of the Enlightenment. The United States Constitution was written in 1787. It established a federal republic based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers. It also recognised the legal equality of all citizens, although in most states suffrage was limited. This meant than only male citizens with a certain level of wealth and property could vote in elections. 1 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com THE FRENCH REVOLUTION The causes of the French Revolution The French Revolution was a period of violent political and social change, which saw the abolition of the absolute monarchy and the end of the estates system of the Ancien Régime. - The influence of the Enlightenment: French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas and tried to put them into practice. For example, they demanded that all French subjects be free and equal under the law. - The political crisis: In France, the Estates General brought together representatives of the three estates of the realm to advise the king on important issues, such as tax increases. Both the clergy (the First Estate) and the nobility (the Second Estate) had 300 representatives in the Estates General, and each group had one vote. In contrast, the middle class and the peasantry (the Third Estate) had 600 representatives and only one vote. King Louis XVI (1774-1792) governed France as an absolute monarch and opposed meeting of the Estates General. For that reason, the estates of the realm could not present their demands or try to limit the king’s power. - The economic crisis: The French state was bankrupt as a result of its participation in military conflicts, such as the American War of Independence. The royal family also spent large amounts of money in palaces, luxury goods and extravagant parties. To improve the country’s finances, Louis XVI’s ministers suggested that he increase taxes, even for the privileged upper classes. - The social crisis: By the late 18th century, all three estates of the realm were discontented with the crown, but for different reasons: The nobility and the clergy wanted to protect their traditional economic privileges. They refused to pay the taxes that the king’s ministers were demanding. The middle class and the peasantry were also discontented: 2 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com The upper middle class or bourgeoisie wanted to abolish the absolute monarchy because it didn’t allow them to participate in the government. The lower middle class, or petite bourgeoisie, was suffering from economic difficulties caused by wars, higher taxes and increases competition from British products. The peasantry also suffered economic problems caused by wars, taxes and poor harvests. Moreover, they also had to pay higher rent to the clergy and nobility. In addition to these problems, the middle class and peasantry were angered by the luxurious lifestyle of the royal family and court. They also objected to the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the nobility. Major events of the French Revolution In the face of increasing, political and economic problems, Louis XVI decided to call together the Estates General in 1789 in order to increase taxes. This meeting marked the beginning of the French Revolution. - The National Assembly: At the meeting of the Estates General, the Third Estate proposed a new voting system in which each representative would have an individual vote. When the king refused, the members of the Third Estate declared themselves the true representatives of the nation. Then they formed a National Assembly and demanded a constitution. - The Constituent Assembly: The king finally agreed to the Third Estate’s demands. A new Constituent Assembly was elected to write a constitution. At the same time, protesters began to riot in the streets of Paris, and on 14 July 1789, they attacked the Bastille (a famous political prison). After that, more riots broke out in the countryside and in other cities around France. In reaction to these violent protests, the Constituent Assembly implemented a number of legal reforms. For example, they abolished feudal rights and approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The declaration stated that all men 3 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com are born free and equal in their rights, and that liberty consists of the freedom to do anything which doesn’t harm other people. Worried by the assembly’s reforms, Louis XVI tried to escape to Austria to ask for support there. However, the revolutionaries discovered the king’s plans and prevented his escape. In 1791, the Constituent Assembly adopted a Constitution which established a constitutional monarchy, popular sovereignty, the separation of powers and limited male suffrage. - The Legislative Assembly: After the constitution had been adopted, a new Legislative Assembly was elected to implement the necessary legal changes. Two political groups dominated this assembly: a) The Girondins believed in the revolution, but represented the interests of the bourgeoisie. Their political ideas gradually became more moderate. The Girondins favoured liberal economic policies that helped the middle class, and wanted to maintain limited suffrage. b) The Jacobins also believed in the revolution, but their political ideas gradually became more radical. The Jacobins wanted to abolish the monarchy and put the king on trial, expand the suffrage, and control price rises to help the workers. As a result they gained support from the Parisian labourers, known as the sans-culottes. Louis XVI opposed the reforms in the Legislative Assembly and asked Austria for support. In response, the assembly imprisoned the king, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. - The Convention: After the election of a new assembly known as the Convention, Louis XVI was accused of treason and then executed. A number of European countries formed a coalition and declared war on France to prevent the Revolution from spreading. Under the leadership of Robespierre, the Jacobins took control of the government and imposed a dictatorship, known as the Terror. They tried to coordinate the European war, while also dealing with the activities of counter-revolutionaries at home. 4 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com - The Directory and the Consulate: By 1795, France’s moderate middle class had gained control of the country. In order to stop the violence and executions, they established the Directory. The Directory was a more conservative government which was composed of five members. In 1799, France was still at war with other European powers, and at home radical revolutionaries wanted to regain control. In response, General Napoleon Bonaparte organised a military coup and established a new form of government called the Consulate. This was a group of three leaders known as consuls, which included Napoleon himself as head of state and First Consul. From Revolution to Empire Napoleon Bonaparte gradually increased his power and was named First Consul for Life in 1802. He then declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. Napoleon’s policy achievements as emperor included the following: - Domestic policy: He established the Civil Code, a set of laws that applied equally to all citizens. It introduced new legal concepts, such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption and state education. - International policy: Napoleon expanded his empire as a result of numerous military victories over other European powers. In the lands that he conquered, Napoleon imposed enlightened and revolutionary policies, including constitutions that abolished absolute monarchy. Napoleon defeated all the countries that were allied against France, except for Great Britain. However, from 1812 onwards, his power began to decline because he had to divide his forces between two very distant fronts: Spain and the Russian Empire. Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo. The victorious powers re-established the Ancien Régime, although this only lasted for a short period of time. 5 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com The consequences of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire The main consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire was the crisis and ultimate disintegration of the Ancien Régime. The mpost important changes during this time were: a) Political changes The French Revolution brought about the end of absolute monarchy - New forms of government were established, such as constitutional monarchies and republics. - New constitutions were based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers. - New constitutions established limited male suffrage and civil rights. - Elections led to the emergence of political groups. b) Economic changes Legal changes ended the economic privileges that had characterised the Ancien Régime: - All citizens now had to pay tax and contribute to the state’s expenses. This included the nobility and the clergy. - New laws guaranteed private property rights. - Free trade was also guaranteed, which benefited middle-class merchants. c) Social changes Once the clergy and the nobility had lost the privileges they had enjoyed under the Ancien Régime, the estates system ceased to exist. 6 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com THE RESTORATION IN EUROPE (1815-1820) The Restoration was a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. The leaders of various European states met at the Congress of Vienna (18141815), where they agreed the following measures: - The restoration of absolute monarchy: The European monarchs who had been deposed boy Napoleon returned to power. However, some of these monarchs had to accept constitutional limits to their power. - Changes to Europe’s borders: Napoleon’s conquests had transformed the map of Europe. After his defeat, another series of changes were made. - Two alliances were formed to enforce the agreements of the Congres s of Vienna, and also to support Europe’s restored monarchs in the event of a revolution. These alliances were The Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria and Prussia) and The Quadruple Alliance (the three members of the Holy Alliance plus Great Britain). LIBERALISM, NATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY The revolutions of the 19th century were reactions to the restoration of the Ancien Régime and the return of absolutism. These revolutions were inspired by two political ideologies (liberalism and nationalism), as well as by the idea of democracy. - Liberalism: Political liberalism had its origins in the Enlightenment ideas that had influenced the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. Liberalism emphasised individual freedoms, and generally represented the interests of the bourgeoisie. - Nationalism: Nationalism advocated the right of people who defined themselves as nations to establish their own independent states. Many nationalist movements originated in the struggle of certain countries and regions to free themselves from domination by Napoleon and his empire. 7 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com - Democracy: In the 19th century, democratic movements defended ordinary people’s right to participate in politics. Democratic movements expressed the demand of the middle and working classes, as well as opposition to the inequalities produced by industrial capitalism. The age of revolution The political revolutions that took place during the first half of the 19 th century brought the final end to absolute monarchy in Europe. Most of these revolutionary movements were based on liberal and nationalist ideologies. However, the revolutions of 1848 aimed to establish democracy as well. In the 1820s, the following revolutions took place: - In Portugal and Spain, there were liberal revolutions that aimed to establish constitutional monarchies. - Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire through a liberal and nationalist revolution. In 1830, new revolutions broke out: - In France, a liberal revolution established a constitutional monarchy. - In Belgium, a nationalist revolution gained independence from the Netherlands, to which Belgium had been united by the Congress of Vienna. In 1848, revolutions broke out in France, the Austrian Empire, the German Confederation and Italy. These were more radical than the revolutions of the 1820s and 1830 (the middle class and proletariat were now demanding democratic reforms which would give them access to political power). All the revolutions of 1848 failed, except in France. In the French case, 1848 brought about the proclamation of the Second Republic and the introductions of universal manhood suffrage. 8 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com Italian and German unification Until the mid-19th century, modern-day Italy and Germany were divided into numerous independent states. However, in both cases nationalist movements emerged during the first half of the 19th century. As a result of their efforts, these states were unified to form two new nation-states. a) Italian unification The unification process was initiated by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859. After gaining support from France, King Victor Emmanuel II and his prime minister, Cavour, fought successfully against Austria. As a result, the Austrians were expelled from Lombardy, a northern region of Italy. After that, the Piedmontese gradually conquered and annexed the rest of the Italian Peninsula with the help of Garibaldi, including Venetia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Unified Italy became a constitutional monarchy, with Victor Emmanuel II as its king. The unification process ended in 1871. Roma was annexed in 1870 and became the capital city of the new state in 1871. b) German unification Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor (prime minister), began the German unification process with a conflict with Denmark over the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. After defeating Denmark in 1864, Prussia further increased its control and influence in northern Germany following the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Although France opposed this expansion of Prussian influence, it was defeated in the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War. As a result of the war, France had to surrender the region of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. Bismarck then established the Second Reich, or German Empire, with Wilhelm I as its Kaiser. This was the end of the process of German unification. . 9 http://historiaturon.wordpress.com 10