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Department of Anthropology and Tribal Development Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur (C.G.) UG/PG (B.A./M.A or B.Sc./M.Sc.) in Anthropology Second Semester Paper-I Introduction to Social anthropology Q.1 1.1 When two or more culture complexes combine together, they make a Answer- (b) Culture pattern 1.2. Concept of ‘Culture Area’ was given by Answer- c) Clark Wissler 1.3.Culture is defined as man and his works by Answer- b) Herskovits 1.4. ‘Culture area’ term was first time employed by Answer- a) T. Mason 1.5. Culture is Answer- d) All the above 1.6. Which of the following is not true? Answer- d) Culture is God –made. 1.7. Any two societies Answer- b) May or may not have similar traits, it depends on contact and diffusion. 1.8. Which of the following is true? Answer- d) All the above 1.9 Which of the following is true? Answer- d) All the above 1.10.Concept of ‘Culture Pattern’ was given by Answer- b) Ruth Benedict in her book ‘Patterns of culture’ Long answer type questions (Attempt any four) 2. India is a country of unity in diversity. Explain this statement with the help of cultural pattern of India. Answer- India possess a big territory, occupied by 28 states and 6 union territories, having democratic constitution and parliamentary system of government based on election etc.To study the national character of India, one has to go through different cultural ages of Indian history like Indus valley Civilization, Vedic age, Epic age, Puranic age, Muslim period, British period and Independent India. India is a country of multi-ethnic and multi cultural groups, having historical traditions, from the period of Indus valley civilization, which its inhabitants have shared and transferred to generations since time immemorial. E. B. Tylor, a great classical evolutionist had wrote that “Culture is that complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, laws, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Language, art, morals, customs, law, religion, and institutions etc all these are different units of a culture, that together combine and give a unique cultural pattern or style to that culture. The concept of Culture pattern was for the first time given by Ruth Benedict in her book, ‘Patterns of Culture’. A culture pattern is formed when traits and complexes become related to each other in functional roles. India is a country, where people speak so many dialect and languages, on this basis , India is a country of multicultural-linguistic zones. Considering religion as an aspect of national character, it is found that India is an abode of numerous religious groups having countless number of Gods and Goddesses. Our Indian cultural pattern consists of Gandhism, Hinduism, Spiritualism, Joint family system, Jajmani system, caste system, ruralism or village system. These are the characteristic features of India and gives India a universal Identity and also reveal unity as well as diversity of our country. In spite of being a nation of multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-regional, multi-religional, multilinguistic groups, all inhabitants are tied together by a sentiment of we-feeling and a democratic government to look after them. This reveals the character of India as to phrase ‘Unity in Diversity’. 3. What do you mean by culture and civilization? Explain with concept and theories. Answer- CultureThe word ‘Culture’ has been defined by many anthropologists and sociologists in different ways. Kroeber and Kluckhohn in their paper entitled, “Culture: A critical review of Concepts and Defenitions”, opined that culture has been defined as having 108 different meanings. According to sociologists Sorokin and MacIver, culture stands for moral, spiritual and intellectual attainments of man. In Hindi, the term Sanskriti (culture) has been taken from Sanskrit language. The first anthropologist who gave the scientific definition of culture was E. B. Tylor who defined culture in his book, ’Primitive Culture’ as “Culture is that complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, laws, and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society”. According to Malinowski, culture is total way of life and it includes all the mental, social and physical means which make life run its course. In other words, culture may be defined as a system of derived needs and an organized system of purposeful activities. According to Malinowski, Bidney and Piddington, two aspects of culture i.e. material and non-material came in existence. E.A.Hoebel in his book, Man in Primitive world (1958:7), has defined culture as the sum total of integrated behaviour pattern, which are the characteristics of the members of society and are not the result of biological inheritence. Thus according to him, culture is invention of man for the fulfillment of social needs and it is transferred from one generation to another through socialization process and exchange of ideas. Herskovits, an American anthropologist, in his book, Man and his Work, has defined culture as man-made part of environment. According to him, environment is of two type: 1.natural environment and 2.social environment. The total social environment of man is his culture, because it is made by man himself. Leslie white stated culture as Extra-somatic temporal continuum. For Robert Redfield, culture is sum total of conventional meaning embodied in art and artifacts, social structure and symbols. Ruth Benedict in her book ‘Patterns of culture’, defined culture like an individual, is more or less consistent pattern of thought and action. Linton in his book cultural backgrounds of personality defined culture as sum total of knowledge, attitudes , natural behaviour pattern shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society. Kluckhohn in his article concept of culture defined culture as all those historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit,rational, irrational which exists at any time as potential guides for behaviour of man. CivilizationAccording to cultural evolutionists Tylor, Morgan, Mclennan etc., the civilization is defined as the most developed form of culture or society. According to them culture or society has passed through the successive stages of development in sequence, namely, savagery, barbarism and civilization. Civilization was the period in which knowledge of further working up of natural products with implements of metals, industry proper, art, phonetic alphabet and writing were acquired. Because of the fact that some kind of writing were certainly developed at the stage of protohistiry i.e. Indus valley culture, this stage is also called as stage of civilization. The diffusionists like Perry, Smith, Kroeber, Boas, Wissler etc. opined that civilization is a developed stage of mankind in history which was marked by introduction of agriculture, irrigation, writing , art, architechture and monument making and use of developed technology. Civilization marks the beginning of history. A.A. Goldenweiser used the word civilization as synonymous to culture. MacIver and Page in their book Society used the word civilization to denote utilitarian things, the whole mechanism and social organism, techniques and material instruments, which has been devised by man in his endeavour to control the condition of life. A.W.Green holds that a culture becomes civilization when it possesss written language, science, philosophy, a specialized division of labour and complex technology and political system. Leslie white opined that culture advances as the energy harnessed per capita per year incrases. As efficiency of controlling energy grew up, he reached in to a developed and civilized stage. It was Robert Redfield who for the first time gave a more logical and scientific defenition of the term civilization. He is known as founder of civilizational school of anthropological thought. His followers like Marriot, Singer, Lewis etc. are also known as Redfieldians or civilizationists .According to him, civilization is defined as complex whole of great and little traditions. thus civilization has many dimensions such as great and little traditions, as well as tribal, rural, and urban culture. He also viewed civilization as world-view, ethos, temperament, value system, cultural personality etc. 4.Write a brief account of various characteristics or attributes of culture. Answer- Attributes of Culture1. Culture is Man-made--Herskovits, an American anthropologist, in his book, Man and his Work, has defined culture as man-made part of environment. According to him, environment is of two type: 1.natural environment and 2.social environment. The total social environment of man is his culture, because it is made by man himself. Hoebel also opined that culture is the invention of Man. For Robert Redfield, culture is sum total of conventional meaning embodied in art and artifacts, social structure and symbols. Everything that is artificial or man-made like artifacts, tools and various social cultural institutions, all created by man are known as culture. 2. Culture is learnedE. B. Tylor defined culture in his book, ’Primitive Culture’ as “Culture is that complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, laws, and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society”. It means that all that is acquired and learned by man is known as culture. 3. Culture is transmitted--Ralph Linton in his book ‘Cultural Backgrounds of Personality’ defined culture as sum total of knowledge, attitudes, natural behaviour pattern shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society. Kroeber defined culture as the mass of learned and transmitted motor reactions, habits, techniques, ideas and values and the behaviour they induce. 4. Every society has got its own culture— Each and every society for their existence have developed their own culture. No two society have same cultural traits. It varies from society to society. Except the conditions of contact, diffusion, migration etc. each society has created their culture according to their environmental conditions, geography, and social-cultural needs. It varies from society to society. 5. Culture is social, not individualistic--The society is always made of people. It is the web of social relationship that means society is a group of people or is more than an aggregate of people and each and every member are interrelated and interdependent to each other. So, it is not a single individual but a large group of people who makes a society. And the way, they behave is known as culture. A society is not a culture and it has a culture. 6. Culture is ideal for the group--Culture is ideal for the group and it plays the role of guide for the people. Ideal culture is what that is real .It lays down the norms of behaviour and provides the mechanism, which secure for an individual his social and personal survival. Without culture , man would have never survived. 7.Culture satisfies human need--According to Malinowski, culture is total way of life and it includes all the mental, social and physical means, which make life run its course. In other words, culture may be defined as a system of derived needs and an organized system of purposeful activities. Whether material or non-material, culture is created by man for the satisfaction of needs. It includes basic needs, imperative and integrative needs. According to Frazer, Some institutions like family, marriage, religion and magic beside fulfilling other basic needs, also satisfy some psychic and mental needs whose fulfillment is necessary for the healthy environment and culture. Linton also viewed that culture is the product of need. It is the satisfaction of needs which maintains survival of man and culture. 8. Culture has adaptability--Culture is adaptable. People living in a particular culture make themselves adaptable to that environment and develop their culture according to that. 9. Culture has integrative quality--Culture with its different cultural traits and complexes which together make a culture pattern helps in integration of culture. Thus the cultural pattern of any culture gives integrity to that culture as a whole. Concept of culture pattern given by Ruth Benedict, themes by Opler, Style of life by Robert Redfield deals with the integrity of culture. 10. Culture shapes human personality---Besides heredity and environment, it is the culturewhich largely determines the types of personality that predominate in particular group. It is because of the differences in cultures that different Hindu castes possess different character and personality. In same way, personalities of tribal, Hindu, Muslim,and sikh communities differ because they have acquired traits and complexes of their own cultural beliefs and practices. Margret Mead in her book ‘Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies’(1935) deals with the impact of culture on personality formation of three societies namely, Arapesh, \Mundugomor and Tshambuli. 11. Culture is both super-individual and super-organic--According to Kroeber, culture is not only super-individual, rather it is superorganic as well. He opined that superorganic means simply, when we consider culture, we are dealing with something that is organic. because culture is inteliigible. it should be accepted that it is not only organic but something more than that. Similarly, culture develops in organic structure but because it possesses such qualities as begin transferable, changeability, collectivity, value pattern and ability to imprss people, therefore it should be called superorganic. Any culture is more than any individual human beings can grasp or manipulate. As the creation and continuity of culture is not based on any individual, therefore culture is super-individual. 5.Write a detailed account of anthropology and its relationship with other disciplines. Answer- Anthropology is derived from the root words ‘Anthropos’ meaning Man and ‘Logos’ meaning study. Clyde Kluckhohn (1949) has pointed out that out of all sciences , anthropology is the one which comes nearest to being a total study of man. He viewed that “Anthropology had become the science of human similarities and differences”. Herskovit (1952)defined Anthropology as “the study of Man And his works” in his book ‘Man and his Works’. Topinard(1876) defined Anthropology as the branch of natural history and deals with man and all races of mankind. Franz Boas, father of American Anthropology in an article on ‘Anthropology’ in Encyclopedia of Social sciences(Vol.II,1930) said “Anthropology deals with man as a social being”. Hoebel in his book ‘Man in the primitive world’ defines “Anthropology as the study of man and all his works”. M. Jacob and B. J. Stern in their book ‘General Anthropology’ (1955) argued that “Anthropology is the scientific study of physical, social and cultural development and behaviour of human being since their appearance on earth”. Core branches of Anthropology are1.Social-cultural Anthropology- According to Radcliffe Brown (1952), It is the study of social systems and how they work? This discipline involves the study of social systems, social structure ,organization etc of preliterate, and literate societies. Raymond Firth (1951) says that it studies human societies comparatively. S.C.Dube (1952) said that social anthropology is that part of cultural anthropology which with the study of social structure rather than material aspects of culture. 2. Physical Anthropology- It deals with the study of human beings physical structure, human origin, evolution, genetics and human variation. On the basis of new researches and development in the field of human growth and nutrition,the physical anthropology has come to be known as New physical anthropology. this field is also known as Biological anthropology. 3. Archeological Anthropology- It deals with the reconstruction of past human societies on the basis of material and fossil remains. It offers an opportunity to look into distant part of human species and then their cultural complexities are reconstructed. thus without the help of archeoplogy, an anthropologist can not study the culture in totality. it has three branches prehistoric, protohistoric and classical archeology. 4. Linguistic Anthropology- The study of language from an anthropological perspectives in known as Linguistic Anthropology. It deals with the origin and role of language in context of social behaviour. Relationship with other branches of Anthropology1.Anthropology and Sociology- Anthropology and Sociology are twin sisters. Both of these studies the social structure, institutions, organization of societies, i.e. social system and their functioning. The difference is only that Anthropology studies both pre-literate and literate societies, prehistoric as well as contemporary societies while sociology studies only literate societies. 2. Anthropology and Natural sciences- Like natural sciences, Anthropology studies man and its heredity, evolution, variation etc. Botany and Zoology are the sciences that studies plant and animal species, their morphology, anatomy, physiology etc. Same way, Anthropology studies human species, their morphology, osteology, evolution from apes to human being, growth, genetics and variation etc. Man is also a social animal. 3. Anthropology and History- Anthropology is the natural history of man. Archeological anthropology is the reconstruction of past on the basis of fossil and material remains. It studies pre-history as well as history of ancient societies. History also reconstructs past on the basis of written documents. In this way both are related to each other. 4. Anthropology and economics- Anthropology is the holistic study of man and it studies each and every aspect that is related to man. In this way, Economic anthropology is the branch of Socio-cultural anthropology that deals with economic system of society. It studies type of economy, production, consumption and distribution of the goods, type of exchange methods like barter, reciprocity, redistribution, market exchange etc. 5. Anthropology and Political sciences- Like political sciences, anthropology also studies law, control, power, type of political organization like band, tribe, chiefdom, and state etc. It studies the evolution of different political organization from primitive to modern society. It studies primitive law, civil law etc. 6. Anthropology and Forensic science- Like Forensic science, anthropology also studies criminology, fingerprinting, osteology, somatometry, somatoscopy etc. of human being. These studies were made under physical anthropology and forensic anthropology etc. branch of anthropology. 7. Anthropology and Palentology- Palentology is the study of fossil remains of both plant and animal species. Anthropology also studies human, plant and animal remains under its branch archeology which studies the past societies on basis of plant and animal remains. 8. Anthropology and geography and climatology- Study of earth, flora and fauna, different physical structures and climate and environmental conditions are very important in anthropological studies as these help in studying the society of living species living in a particular climate, geographical conditions etc. as these effect their adaptive capability and in turn their social –cultural structure. 6. Write a detailed note on cultural paradoxes. Answer- Herskovits in his book, Man and his work has explained some paradoxes in relation to culture, which clarify the characteristics of culture. These paradoxes are1. Culture is stable, yet culture is also dynamic, and manifests continuous and constant change. The social ,cultural and mental needs of man influence all the aspects of culture.If man’s needs changes it brings in culture as well. These needs change in different periods of time. Infact these chnges are not so rapid that they produce disorder in total cultural system. there is organization and equilibrium in cultural traits or complexes or patterns, which provide stacity or stability in culture. For instance, Comparing the cultural remains discovered at Indus valley civilization with present day Indian culture, he or she finds that main traits of Indian culture are still static , though thousands of years passed. This example reveals that culture is static as well as dyanamic. With the changeability in cultural traits, there is also stability in culture. 2. Cuture is universal in man’s experience, yet each local or regional menifestation of it is unique. Wherever man resides there is culture. Whether it is forest or hilly area or it is plain or island, urban or rural area, everywhere man develops a culture. Each culture has its own characteristics or traits which are different from other. while there are some trits which are common to all. For example , each culture has some kind of family, kinship, marriage, political control, religion, economy etc. These are the universal aspects of culture which are common to all cultures. while there also exist local, native or particular traits of a culture. It is therefore, culture cannot be understood, unless one possesses the knowledge of local encironment and its past. 3. Culture fulfills and largely determines the course of our lives, yet rarely intrudes into conscious thought. An individual born in a culture and he leads entire life in it. thus ,culture determines our way of life. our lifeways, are determined, guided and controlled by the culture. 7. What do you mean by social stratification? Explain its role in society? The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as Stratification. According to Raymond Murray, Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lower social units. every society is divided into more or less distinct groups. Sorokin wrote that Social stratification means the differentiation of a given population into hierarchically superimposed classes. The systematic ranking of persons into categories, particularly in state societies where such stratification is institutionalised and is referred to as social stratification. Social stratification both arises from and give rise to social inequality and the study of social stratification is linked to those of political anthropology and power in cross-cultural perspective. It is based on unequal distribution of rights and privileges, duties and responsibilities, social values and power among the members of society. G.D. Berreman suggests that out of differentiation of persons, inequality or the social evaluation of differences arises. In egalitarian socities, the division of labour and the distribution of status is based on age, sex, and personal attributes. Dominance and status in these groups are often negotiable and contextual. in ranked or inegalitarian societies, inequaltiy is institutionalizes and embedded in a hierarchy of statuses linked to ranked social entities. Lundberg writes that A stratified society os one marked by inequality, by differences among the people that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”. It would thus be seen that inequality of status or rank differentiation is the distinguishing feature of social stratification. Sorokin viewed that conflict may be regarded as facilitating stratification. stratification is found in all societies peaceful as well as war-like.racial differences also lead to stratification. Role of sratification1. Kingslay Davis viewed that social inequality is a device which insure that most important positions are filled by the most qualified persons. hence every society must possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality or Social stratification . 2. Social stratification also serves the role of elite control. 3. Social stratification assumes the form of class divisions in society. In course of history, various social classes have existed at different periods like slaves and masters, vassals and feudal lords, capitalists and workers etc. 4. In india, caste is an important type of Social stratification. Caste is hereditary and person belongs to a particular caste by birth. By forbidding inter -caste marriages , caste helps in preserving racial purity of the higher castes. It has provided every individual with a fixed social environment and secures an occupation by birth to the members of a caste group in which they are specialized. I t also develops class consciousness and integration in society. The members of a particular caste have unity and co-operation among them. 8.Anthropological knowledge can be applied in various fields. Explain this statement with example. Answer- Application of Anthropology- Anthropological knowledge can be applied in various fields. As anthropology is the holistic study of man, it includes each and every aspect related to man. Thus it is applied in every sciences, whether natural and social-cultural. The social-cultural, physical and archeological and linguistic branch of anthropology can be apllied in various fields. 1. Anthropology as Social Engineering- Raymond Firth opined that it is the work of anthropologist to bridge the gap between primitive and civilized societies. He accepted applied anthropology as ‘social engineering’. 2. Anthropology as Social medicine- Kluckhohn held view that applied anthropology is like social medicine, not like social engineering. Applied anthropologists should work like social doctors, who make proper treatment for removing diseases. 3. Anthropology as administrators and policy makers- Some anthropologists viewed that anthropologists also work as administrators and policy makers. While some criticize that anthropologists should never work as administrators and policy makers. 4. Anthropology as developmental anthropologists- Anthropological knowledge is applied in different tribal, rural and other backward communities’s developmental programmes. 5. Anthropology in forensic studies - Anthropological knowledge is applied in crime studies and investigation, fingerprinting, collection of evidences against culprit, blood group studies etc. Forensic science also uses anthropometrical knowledge of anthropology in identification of bone, fossil, race etc. 6. Anthropology as racial identification- Anthropomeric studies in physical anthropology is utilized in racial identification. 7. Anthropology in Sports and clothes industry– Anthropomeric studies done in physical anthropology is also utilized in sports as these studies help in finding the physique of sportsperson/players fit/unfit for sports or game etc. These studies also help in cloth industry. 8. Anthropology in genetics, evolutionary studies and genetic counselling- In physical anthropology, study of Gene, DNA,RNA, genetic abnormalities etc. done are also used in genetics and heredity studies, evolutionary studies and also solving the genetic abnormalities and genetic counselling. 9. Anthropology in problem solving- Anthropological studies are used in solution of social- cultural problems like educational, health and hygene related, land alienation, poverty and deprivation, gender and caste based discrimination, sexual harassment etc. 10.Anthropological research methodology in data collection- The anthropological research techniques help in data collection of primitive as well as contemporary societies. It studies each and every data related to human being. It studies the society with the help of participant observation and other research technioques. Field -work is the soul of anthropology and field is the laboratory for anthropological studies. 11.Anthropology in socio-cultural studies- As anthropology studies all the aspects i.e. language, art, music, tradition , customs, rituals, law, economy, science, magic , family, marriage ,kinship, caste system etc. which are part of society and culture both, it helps in study of society and culture both. 12.Anthropology in psychological studies/ personality studies- Anthropologist study culture and personality of human beings/community and with the help of these studies, they study the personality of that particular individual/community. They also study the mental or psychic behaviour of human being living or growing in a particular cultural conditions. 13.Anthropology in preservation of language- Study of origin and evolution of language done in linguistic anthropology helps in linguistic studies. These studies help in phonetic and phonemic studies and also helps in preservation of language. The language is a part of culture and an important constituent and trait of culture. The preservation of language helps in preservation of culture also. 14.Anthropology in preservation of folk culture or oral tradition- Study of folk socities and social-cultural changes in them due to urbanization, westernization, and modernization helps in knowledge of the cultural traits of these societies and also preservation of these folk-cultural traits in form of art, music, dance , folk-lore etc. 15.Anthropology in urban studies- Anthropological studies are also applied in study of urban societies, reason behind migration, urbanization, industrialization etc. 16.Anthropology in medical application- Anthropological knowledge and technique is applied in medical studies like health and hygiene studies, causes and prevention of diseases, Ethno-medicine, shamanism etc. 17.Anthropology in religious studies- Anthropology is also used in study of belief in soul or god i.e. religion. It helps in study of origin and evolution of different kind of religions in world. Thus anthropology is being used in administration, resolving ethnic crisis, maintaining national integration and communal harmony, industrial field, medicine, tribal problems, backward class problems, criminal behaviour etc.