Download Department of Anthropology and Tribal Development Guru

Department of Anthropology and Tribal Development
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur (C.G.)
UG/PG (B.A./M.A or B.Sc./M.Sc.) in Anthropology
Second Semester
Paper-I Introduction to Social anthropology
Q.1 1.1 When two or more culture complexes combine together, they make a
Answer- (b) Culture pattern
1.2. Concept of ‘Culture Area’ was given by
Answer- c) Clark Wissler
1.3.Culture is defined as man and his works by
Answer- b) Herskovits
1.4. ‘Culture area’ term was first time employed by
Answer- a) T. Mason
1.5. Culture is
Answer- d) All the above
1.6. Which of the following is not true?
Answer- d) Culture is God –made.
1.7. Any two societies
Answer- b) May or may not have similar traits, it depends on contact and
diffusion.
1.8. Which of the following is true?
Answer- d) All the above
1.9 Which of the following is true?
Answer- d) All the above
1.10.Concept of ‘Culture Pattern’ was given by
Answer- b) Ruth Benedict in her book ‘Patterns of culture’
Long answer type questions (Attempt any four)
2. India is a country of unity in diversity. Explain this statement with the help of
cultural pattern of India.
Answer- India possess a big territory, occupied by 28 states and 6 union territories,
having democratic constitution and parliamentary system of government based on
election etc.To study the national character of India, one has to go through different
cultural ages of Indian history like Indus valley Civilization, Vedic age, Epic age,
Puranic age, Muslim period, British period and Independent India. India is a country
of multi-ethnic and multi cultural groups, having historical traditions, from the
period of Indus valley civilization, which its inhabitants have shared and transferred
to generations since time immemorial. E. B. Tylor, a great classical evolutionist had
wrote that “Culture is that complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, customs, laws, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society”. Language, art, morals, customs, law, religion, and institutions
etc all these are different units of a culture, that together combine and give a unique
cultural pattern or style to that culture. The concept of Culture pattern was for the
first time given by Ruth Benedict in her book, ‘Patterns of Culture’. A culture
pattern is formed when traits and complexes become related to each other in
functional roles. India is a country, where people speak so many dialect and
languages, on this basis , India is a country of multicultural-linguistic zones.
Considering religion as an aspect of national character, it is found that India is an
abode of numerous
religious groups having countless number of Gods and
Goddesses. Our Indian cultural pattern consists of Gandhism, Hinduism,
Spiritualism, Joint family system, Jajmani system, caste system, ruralism or village
system. These are the characteristic features of India and gives India a universal
Identity and also reveal unity as well as diversity of our country. In spite of being a
nation of multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-regional, multi-religional, multilinguistic groups, all inhabitants are tied together by a sentiment of we-feeling and a
democratic government to look after them. This reveals the character of India as to
phrase ‘Unity in Diversity’.
3. What do you mean by culture and civilization? Explain with concept and theories.
Answer- CultureThe word ‘Culture’ has been defined by many anthropologists and sociologists in
different ways. Kroeber and Kluckhohn in their paper entitled, “Culture: A critical
review of Concepts and Defenitions”, opined that culture has been defined as having
108 different meanings. According to sociologists Sorokin and MacIver, culture
stands for moral, spiritual and intellectual attainments of man. In Hindi, the term
Sanskriti (culture) has been taken from Sanskrit language.
The first anthropologist who gave the scientific definition of culture was E. B. Tylor
who defined culture in his book, ’Primitive Culture’ as “Culture is that complex
whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, laws, and any other
capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society”. According to
Malinowski, culture is total way of life and it includes all the mental, social and
physical means which make life run its course. In other words, culture may be
defined as a system of derived needs and an organized system of purposeful
activities. According to Malinowski, Bidney and Piddington, two aspects of culture
i.e. material and non-material came in existence.
E.A.Hoebel in his book, Man in Primitive world (1958:7), has defined culture as the
sum total of integrated behaviour pattern, which are the characteristics of the
members of society and are not the result of biological inheritence. Thus according
to him, culture is invention of man for the fulfillment of social needs and it is
transferred from one generation to another through socialization process and
exchange of ideas.
Herskovits, an American anthropologist, in his book, Man and his Work, has defined
culture as man-made part of environment. According to him, environment is of two
type: 1.natural environment and 2.social environment. The total social environment
of man is his culture, because it is made by man himself. Leslie white stated culture
as Extra-somatic temporal continuum. For Robert Redfield, culture is sum total of
conventional meaning embodied in art and artifacts, social structure and symbols.
Ruth Benedict in her book ‘Patterns of culture’, defined culture like an individual, is
more or less consistent pattern of thought and action. Linton in his book cultural
backgrounds of personality defined culture as sum total of knowledge, attitudes ,
natural behaviour pattern shared and transmitted by the members of a particular
society. Kluckhohn in his article concept of culture defined culture as all those
historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit,rational, irrational which
exists at any time as potential guides for behaviour of man.
CivilizationAccording to cultural evolutionists Tylor, Morgan, Mclennan etc., the civilization is
defined as the most developed form of culture or society. According to them culture
or society has passed through the successive stages of development in sequence,
namely, savagery, barbarism and civilization. Civilization was the period in which
knowledge of further working up of natural products with implements of metals,
industry proper, art, phonetic alphabet and writing were acquired. Because of the
fact that some kind of writing were certainly developed at the stage of protohistiry
i.e. Indus valley culture, this stage is also called as stage of civilization. The
diffusionists like Perry, Smith, Kroeber, Boas, Wissler etc. opined that civilization
is a developed stage of mankind in history which was marked by introduction of
agriculture, irrigation, writing , art, architechture and monument making and use of
developed technology. Civilization marks the beginning of history. A.A.
Goldenweiser used the word civilization as synonymous to culture. MacIver and
Page in their book Society used the word civilization to denote utilitarian things, the
whole mechanism and social organism, techniques and material instruments, which
has been devised by man in his endeavour to control the condition of life.
A.W.Green holds that a culture becomes civilization when it possesss written
language, science, philosophy, a specialized division of labour and complex
technology and political system. Leslie white opined that culture advances as the
energy harnessed per capita per year incrases. As efficiency of controlling energy
grew up, he reached in to a developed and civilized stage.
It was Robert Redfield who for the first time gave a more logical and scientific
defenition of the term civilization. He is known as founder of civilizational school of
anthropological thought. His followers like Marriot, Singer, Lewis etc. are also
known as Redfieldians or civilizationists .According to him, civilization is defined
as complex whole of great and little traditions. thus civilization has many
dimensions such as great and little traditions, as well as tribal, rural, and urban
culture. He also viewed civilization as world-view, ethos, temperament, value
system, cultural personality etc.
4.Write a brief account of various characteristics or attributes of culture.
Answer- Attributes of Culture1. Culture is Man-made--Herskovits, an American anthropologist, in his book, Man and his Work, has defined
culture as man-made part of environment. According to him, environment is of two
type: 1.natural environment and 2.social environment. The total social environment
of man is his culture, because it is made by man himself. Hoebel also opined that
culture is the invention of Man. For Robert Redfield, culture is sum total of
conventional meaning embodied in art and artifacts, social structure and symbols.
Everything that is artificial or man-made like artifacts, tools and various social
cultural institutions, all created by man are known as culture.
2. Culture is learnedE. B. Tylor defined culture in his book, ’Primitive Culture’ as “Culture is that
complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, laws, and any
other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society”. It means that
all that is acquired and learned by man is known as culture.
3. Culture is transmitted--Ralph Linton in his book ‘Cultural Backgrounds of Personality’ defined culture as
sum total of knowledge, attitudes, natural behaviour pattern shared and transmitted
by the members of a particular society. Kroeber defined culture as the mass of
learned and transmitted motor reactions, habits, techniques, ideas and values and the
behaviour they induce.
4. Every society has got its own culture—
Each and every society for their existence have developed their own culture. No two
society have same cultural traits. It varies from society to society. Except the
conditions of contact, diffusion, migration etc. each society has created their culture
according to their environmental conditions, geography, and social-cultural needs. It
varies from society to society.
5. Culture is social, not individualistic--The society is always made of people. It is the web of social relationship that means
society is a group of people or is more than an aggregate of people and each and
every member are interrelated and interdependent to each other. So, it is not a single
individual but a large group of people who makes a society. And the way, they
behave is known as culture. A society is not a culture and it has a culture.
6. Culture is ideal for the group--Culture is ideal for the group and it plays the role of guide for the people. Ideal
culture is what that is real .It lays down the norms of behaviour and provides the
mechanism, which secure for an individual his social and personal survival. Without
culture , man would have never survived.
7.Culture satisfies human need--According to Malinowski, culture is total way of life and it includes all the mental,
social and physical means, which make life run its course. In other words, culture
may be defined as a system of derived needs and an organized system of purposeful
activities. Whether material or non-material, culture is created by man for the
satisfaction of needs. It includes basic needs, imperative and integrative needs.
According to Frazer, Some institutions like family, marriage, religion and magic
beside fulfilling other basic needs, also satisfy some psychic and mental needs
whose fulfillment is necessary for the healthy environment and culture. Linton also
viewed that culture is the product of need. It is the satisfaction of needs which
maintains survival of man and culture.
8. Culture has adaptability--Culture is adaptable. People living in a particular culture make themselves adaptable
to that environment and develop their culture according to that.
9. Culture has integrative quality--Culture with its different cultural traits and complexes which together make a culture
pattern helps in integration of culture. Thus the cultural pattern of any culture gives
integrity to that culture as a whole. Concept of culture pattern given by Ruth
Benedict, themes by Opler, Style of life by Robert Redfield deals with the integrity
of culture.
10. Culture shapes human personality---Besides heredity and environment, it is the culturewhich largely determines the types
of personality that predominate in particular group. It is because of the differences in
cultures that different Hindu castes possess different character and personality. In
same way, personalities of
tribal, Hindu, Muslim,and sikh communities differ
because they have acquired traits and complexes of their own cultural beliefs and
practices. Margret Mead in her book ‘Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive
Societies’(1935) deals with the impact of culture on personality formation of three
societies namely, Arapesh, \Mundugomor and Tshambuli.
11. Culture is both super-individual and super-organic--According to Kroeber, culture is not only super-individual, rather it is superorganic
as well. He opined that superorganic means simply, when we consider culture, we
are dealing with something that is organic. because culture is inteliigible. it should
be accepted that it is not only organic but something more than that. Similarly,
culture develops in organic structure but because it possesses such qualities as begin
transferable, changeability, collectivity, value pattern and ability to imprss people,
therefore it should be called superorganic. Any culture is more than any individual
human beings can grasp or manipulate. As the creation and continuity of culture is
not based on any individual, therefore culture is super-individual.
5.Write a detailed account of anthropology and its relationship with other
disciplines.
Answer- Anthropology is derived from the root words ‘Anthropos’ meaning Man
and ‘Logos’ meaning study. Clyde Kluckhohn (1949) has pointed out that out of all
sciences , anthropology is the one which comes nearest to being a total study of man.
He viewed that “Anthropology had become the science of human similarities and
differences”.
Herskovit (1952)defined Anthropology as “the study of Man And his works” in his
book ‘Man and his Works’. Topinard(1876) defined Anthropology as the branch of
natural history and deals with man and all races of mankind. Franz Boas, father of
American Anthropology in an article on ‘Anthropology’ in Encyclopedia of Social
sciences(Vol.II,1930) said “Anthropology deals with man as a social being”. Hoebel
in his book ‘Man in the primitive world’ defines “Anthropology as the study of man
and all his works”.
M. Jacob and B. J. Stern in their book ‘General Anthropology’ (1955) argued that
“Anthropology is the scientific study of physical, social and cultural development
and behaviour of human being since their appearance on earth”.
Core branches of Anthropology are1.Social-cultural Anthropology- According to Radcliffe Brown (1952), It is the study
of social systems and how they work? This discipline involves the study of social
systems, social structure ,organization etc of preliterate, and literate societies.
Raymond Firth (1951) says that it studies human societies comparatively. S.C.Dube
(1952) said that social anthropology is that part of cultural anthropology which with
the study of social structure rather than material aspects of culture.
2. Physical Anthropology- It deals with the study of human beings physical structure,
human origin, evolution, genetics and human variation. On the basis of new
researches and development in the field of human growth and nutrition,the physical
anthropology has come to be known as New physical anthropology. this field is also
known as Biological anthropology.
3. Archeological Anthropology- It deals with the reconstruction of past human
societies on the basis of material and fossil remains. It offers an opportunity to look
into distant part of human species
and then their cultural complexities are
reconstructed. thus without the help of archeoplogy, an anthropologist can not study
the culture in totality. it has three branches prehistoric, protohistoric and classical
archeology.
4. Linguistic Anthropology- The study of language from an anthropological
perspectives in known as Linguistic Anthropology. It deals with the origin and role
of language in context of social behaviour.
Relationship with other branches of Anthropology1.Anthropology and Sociology- Anthropology and Sociology are twin sisters. Both
of these studies the social structure, institutions, organization of societies, i.e. social
system and their functioning. The difference is only that Anthropology studies both
pre-literate and literate societies, prehistoric as well as contemporary societies while
sociology studies only literate societies.
2. Anthropology and Natural sciences- Like natural sciences, Anthropology studies
man and its heredity, evolution, variation etc. Botany and Zoology are the sciences
that studies plant and animal species, their morphology, anatomy, physiology etc.
Same way, Anthropology studies human species, their morphology, osteology,
evolution from apes to human being, growth, genetics and variation etc. Man is also
a social animal.
3. Anthropology and History- Anthropology is the natural history of man.
Archeological anthropology is the reconstruction of past on the basis of fossil and
material remains. It studies pre-history as well as history of ancient societies. History
also reconstructs past on the basis of written documents. In this way both are related
to each other.
4. Anthropology and economics- Anthropology is the holistic study of man and it
studies each and every aspect that is related to man. In this way, Economic
anthropology is the branch of Socio-cultural anthropology that deals with economic
system of society. It studies type of economy, production, consumption and
distribution of the goods, type of exchange methods like barter, reciprocity,
redistribution, market exchange etc.
5. Anthropology and Political sciences- Like political sciences, anthropology also
studies law, control, power, type of political organization like band, tribe, chiefdom,
and state etc.
It studies the evolution of different political organization from primitive to modern
society. It studies primitive law, civil law etc.
6. Anthropology and Forensic science- Like Forensic science, anthropology also
studies criminology, fingerprinting, osteology, somatometry, somatoscopy etc. of
human being. These studies were made under physical anthropology and forensic
anthropology etc. branch of anthropology.
7. Anthropology and Palentology- Palentology is the study of fossil remains of both
plant and animal species. Anthropology also studies human, plant and animal
remains under its branch archeology which studies the past societies on basis of
plant and animal remains.
8. Anthropology and geography and climatology- Study of earth, flora and fauna,
different physical structures and climate and environmental conditions are very
important in anthropological studies as these help in studying the society of living
species living in a particular climate, geographical conditions etc. as these effect
their adaptive capability and in turn their social –cultural structure.
6. Write a detailed note on cultural paradoxes.
Answer- Herskovits in his book, Man and his work has explained some paradoxes
in relation to culture, which clarify the characteristics of culture. These paradoxes
are1. Culture is stable, yet culture is also dynamic, and manifests continuous and
constant change. The social ,cultural and mental needs of man influence all the
aspects of culture.If man’s needs changes it brings in culture as well. These needs
change in different periods of time. Infact these chnges are not so rapid that they
produce disorder in total cultural system. there is organization and equilibrium in
cultural traits or complexes or patterns, which provide stacity or stability in culture.
For instance, Comparing the cultural remains discovered at Indus valley civilization
with present day Indian culture, he or she finds that main traits of Indian culture are
still static , though thousands of years passed. This example reveals that culture is
static as well as dyanamic. With the changeability in cultural traits, there is also
stability in culture.
2. Cuture is universal in man’s experience, yet each local or regional menifestation
of it is unique. Wherever man resides there is culture. Whether it is forest or hilly
area or it is plain or island, urban or rural area, everywhere man develops a culture.
Each culture has its own characteristics or traits which are different from other.
while there are some trits which are common to all. For example , each culture has
some kind of family, kinship, marriage, political control, religion, economy etc.
These are the universal aspects of culture which are common to all cultures. while
there also exist local, native or particular traits of a culture. It is therefore, culture
cannot be understood, unless one possesses the knowledge of local encironment and
its past.
3. Culture fulfills and largely determines the course of our lives, yet rarely intrudes
into conscious thought. An individual born in a culture and he leads entire life in it.
thus ,culture determines our way of life. our lifeways, are determined, guided and
controlled by the culture.
7. What do you mean by social stratification? Explain its role in society?
The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as Stratification. According to Raymond Murray, Social
stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lower social units.
every society is divided into more or less distinct groups. Sorokin wrote that Social
stratification means the differentiation of a given population into hierarchically
superimposed classes. The systematic ranking of persons into categories, particularly
in state societies where such stratification is institutionalised and is referred to as
social stratification. Social stratification both arises from and give rise to social
inequality and the study of social stratification is linked to those of political
anthropology and power in cross-cultural perspective. It is based on unequal
distribution of rights and privileges, duties and responsibilities, social values and
power among the members of society.
G.D. Berreman suggests that out of differentiation of persons, inequality or the
social evaluation of differences arises. In egalitarian socities, the division of labour
and the distribution of status is based on age, sex, and personal attributes.
Dominance and status in these groups are often negotiable and contextual. in ranked
or inegalitarian societies, inequaltiy is institutionalizes and embedded in a hierarchy
of statuses linked to ranked social entities. Lundberg writes that A stratified society
os one marked by inequality, by differences among the people that are evaluated by
them as being “lower” and “higher”. It would thus be seen that inequality of status or
rank differentiation is the distinguishing feature of social stratification. Sorokin
viewed that conflict may be regarded as facilitating stratification. stratification is
found in all societies peaceful as well as war-like.racial differences also lead to
stratification.
Role of sratification1. Kingslay Davis viewed that social inequality is a device which insure that most
important positions are filled by the most qualified persons. hence every society
must possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality or Social stratification .
2. Social stratification also serves the role of elite control.
3. Social stratification assumes the form of class divisions in society. In course of
history, various social classes have existed at different periods like slaves and
masters, vassals and feudal lords, capitalists and workers etc.
4. In india, caste is an important type of Social stratification. Caste is hereditary and
person belongs to a particular caste by birth. By forbidding inter -caste marriages ,
caste helps in preserving racial purity of the higher castes. It has provided every
individual with a fixed social environment and secures an occupation by birth to the
members of a caste group in which they are specialized. I t also develops class
consciousness and integration in society. The members of a particular caste have
unity and co-operation among them.
8.Anthropological knowledge can be applied in various fields. Explain this statement
with example.
Answer- Application of Anthropology- Anthropological knowledge can be applied
in various fields. As anthropology is the holistic study of man, it includes each and
every aspect related to man. Thus it is applied in every sciences, whether natural and
social-cultural. The social-cultural, physical and archeological and linguistic branch
of anthropology can be apllied in various fields.
1. Anthropology as Social Engineering- Raymond Firth opined that it is the work of
anthropologist to bridge the gap between primitive and civilized societies. He
accepted applied anthropology as ‘social engineering’.
2. Anthropology as Social medicine- Kluckhohn held view that applied anthropology is
like social medicine, not like social engineering. Applied anthropologists should
work like social doctors, who make proper treatment for removing diseases.
3. Anthropology as administrators and policy makers- Some anthropologists viewed
that anthropologists also work as administrators and policy makers. While some
criticize that anthropologists should never work as administrators and policy makers.
4. Anthropology as developmental anthropologists- Anthropological knowledge is
applied in different tribal, rural and other backward communities’s developmental
programmes.
5. Anthropology in forensic studies - Anthropological knowledge is applied in crime
studies and investigation, fingerprinting, collection of evidences against culprit,
blood group studies etc. Forensic science also uses anthropometrical knowledge of
anthropology in identification of bone, fossil, race etc.
6. Anthropology as racial identification-
Anthropomeric studies in physical
anthropology is utilized in racial identification.
7. Anthropology in Sports and clothes industry– Anthropomeric studies done in
physical anthropology is also utilized in sports as these studies help in finding the
physique of sportsperson/players fit/unfit for sports or game etc. These studies also
help in cloth industry.
8. Anthropology in genetics, evolutionary studies and genetic counselling- In physical
anthropology, study of Gene, DNA,RNA, genetic abnormalities etc. done are also
used in genetics and heredity studies, evolutionary studies and also solving the
genetic abnormalities and genetic counselling.
9. Anthropology in problem solving- Anthropological studies are used in solution of
social- cultural problems like educational, health and hygene related, land alienation,
poverty and deprivation, gender and caste based discrimination, sexual harassment
etc.
10.Anthropological research methodology in data collection- The anthropological
research techniques help in data collection of primitive as well as contemporary
societies. It studies each and every data related to human being. It studies the society
with the help of participant observation and other research technioques. Field -work
is the soul of anthropology and field is the laboratory for anthropological studies.
11.Anthropology in socio-cultural studies- As anthropology studies all the aspects i.e.
language, art, music, tradition , customs, rituals, law, economy, science, magic ,
family, marriage ,kinship, caste system etc. which are part of society and culture
both, it helps in study of society and culture both.
12.Anthropology in psychological studies/ personality studies- Anthropologist study
culture and personality of human beings/community and with the help of these
studies, they study the personality of that particular individual/community. They also
study the mental or psychic behaviour of human being living or growing in a
particular cultural conditions.
13.Anthropology in preservation of language- Study of origin and evolution of language
done in linguistic anthropology helps in linguistic studies. These studies help in
phonetic and phonemic studies and also helps in preservation of language. The
language is a part of culture and an important constituent and trait of culture. The
preservation of language helps in preservation of culture also.
14.Anthropology in preservation of folk culture or oral tradition- Study of folk socities
and social-cultural changes in them due to urbanization, westernization, and
modernization helps in knowledge of the cultural traits of these societies and also
preservation of these folk-cultural traits in form of art, music, dance , folk-lore etc.
15.Anthropology in urban studies- Anthropological studies are also applied in study of
urban societies, reason behind migration, urbanization, industrialization etc.
16.Anthropology in medical application- Anthropological knowledge and technique is
applied in medical studies like health and hygiene studies, causes and prevention of
diseases, Ethno-medicine, shamanism etc.
17.Anthropology in religious studies- Anthropology is also used in study of belief in
soul or god i.e. religion. It helps in study of origin and evolution of different kind of
religions in world.
Thus anthropology is being used in administration, resolving ethnic crisis,
maintaining national integration and communal harmony, industrial field, medicine,
tribal problems, backward class problems, criminal behaviour etc.