Download HUMAN BONES FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGIST

189
HUMAN BONES FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGIST:
AN AID IN THEIR IDENTIFICATION
Louis D.
Tesar
University of MissouriColumbia, Miscellaneous
Publications in
Anthropology, Number 5.
to
intended
is
article
This
anthronon-physical
the
assist
pologist in learning to identify
human bones, as well as to unterms
specialized
the
derstand
anthropolophysical
by
used
including those used in
gists,
articles.
three
proceeding
the
be faalready
may
you
Many of
of the
much
or
all
with
miliar
This
presented.
information
others
to
directed
is
article
with
familiar
as
not
are
who
not,
is
It
such information.
a
nor
definitive
a
however,
It
presentation.
comprehensive
presentageneral
brief,
a
is
It is part of our contintion.
uing effort to provide "How-to"
information
"educational"
and
a beginour readers; not
for
human
analysing
to
guide
ner's
years
requires
it
since
remains,
sufficient
acquire
to
study
of
knowledge to attempt such work,
and this presentation is limited
to the general identification of
bones and some of their features
but not their analysis.
Of these, I prefer Bass' presenThere are, of course,
station.
many other sources available on
this subject; although, most of
beginners.
for
not
are
them
Indeed few physical anthropology
publications are directed to the
a
is
subject
the
as
beginner
specialized, technical field of
However, if you wish to
study.
go beyond this brief beginning,
please contact the Anthropology
Department at your nearest Unihave
them
of
most
as
versity
on
anthropologists
physical
their staff.
The illustrations used in this
the
by
prepared
were
article
those
from
They vary
author.
used in most manuals and texts
dealing with the identification
Most publicaof human bones.
tions on this subject show views
of the bones in strictly anatomback,
front,
ical positions:
top, bottom or side, while these
illustrations are oriented so as
identifying
most
the
show
to
since
Furthermore,
features.
is
article
this
of
focus
the
simply bone identification, not
all bones are illustrated, nor
distinshowing
examples
are
guishing sex or age differences.
The reader is again directed to
sources
comprehensive
the more
cited above.
The interested reader who wishes
to go beyond this brief introductory presentation is directed
to the following texts:
Anderson, J.E.
The Human Skeleton:
1962
Manual for ArchaeoNational
logists.
Canada.
Museum of
A
Bass, William M.
A
Human Osteology:
1971
Laboratory and Field
Manual of the Human
Missouri
Skeleton.
Archaeological Society,
Special Publications,
University of Missouri,
Columbia.
While the bones illustrated in
this article are complete, well
most
in
examples,
preserved
arin
preservation
instances
chaeological contexts is so poor
that the physical anthropologist
and
fragments
with
work
must
decayed
partially
or
incomplete
amply
is
This
skeletons.
Hutchinson, Thomas C.
Laboratory Methods In
1976
Physical Anthropology.
t
A r,_
E, T A
O
.
A
TA
demonstrated in the first
articles in this issue.
.TmTT
a
,T
-rfTm
TnA.-I^nn
1..' a-
.
three
Thus,
I Q1
A
190
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
while
information
can
be
gathered from bones themselves,
proper
in
situ
measurements,
illustrations
and/or
photographs,and
recording
of
the
context in which they are found
is
critical
to
their
interpretation.
This
is further
discussed
in
the
"Handbook of
Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology"
(Morse et al,
editors,
revised 1984).
However, if you are not a professional
archaeologist,
and
find human skeletal remains in
archaeological
contexts
please
DO NOT excavate them.
Please
recover
them
with
dirt
and
notify the professionals in your
area.
Aside from the skill and
knowledge necessary to properly
excavate
such
remains
without
loosing important data, in most
states
it is against
the
law.
In Florida,
for
instance,
you
would be in violation of Chapter
872, Florida Statutes ("Offenses
Concerning
Dead
Bodies
and
Graves").
In addition, if it is
on
state-owned
or
controlled
land you would be violating the
provisions of Chapter 267, Florida Statutes,
and may also be
charged with trespass and vandalism on state-owned or private
land.
Finally, various federal
laws apply to the unauthorized
excavation
of
burial
sites
on
federally owned lands.
Indeed,
unless the remains can be professionally excavated and analysed, if they are not threatened
by proposed construction or land
clearance, they should
be left
alone and undisturbed.
Regardless
of
which
laws
are
being
violated,
on
a
more
personal
level, it
is the author's opinion that Native American
and
other
burial
sites
should
be
protected
and
preserved; that they should not be
excavated
except
to
address
(37(4), 1984)
specific
research
questions
or
to
recover
threatened
remains;
that such excavation should only
be conducted under the direction
of a trained professional; that
their
analysis
should
be
performed
in
a
professional
and
timely manner; that they should
be handled, in so far as possible, in a manner respecting the
belief systems of the involved
individuals' culture; and, that
following
analysis
and
report
preparation
the
remains,
of
historic
populations
at
least,
should be properly reburied in a
manner in keeping with the belief
systems of the identified
culture from which the
remains
originated.
I
have
found the
double
standard
of
generally
providing
a means
of
reburial
for identified christian burial
remains while retaining those of
non-christian pagans for continued,
indefinite
study
to
be
personally
offensive.
Thus,
while my own belief system has
no continuing tie to my physical
self
following
death
and
expresses a desire to return those
remains to Mother Earth as nutrients
for
other
growing
things, I believe that we should
respect
the
belief
systems
of
others.
I hope this presentation proves
informative,
while at
the same
time not encouraging our readership
to entertain a desire
to
obtain
their
own
examples
for
comparative analysis.
The illustrated specimens are in
the
physical
anthropology
collection of the Department of
Anthropology
at
the
Florida
State
University in Tallahassee where
they
are
used
for
teaching
purposes.
They were illustrated
while the author was a student.
The majority of the terms used
in the glossary are from notes
taken
as
part
of
a
physical
anthropology
course
taught
by
Dr.
or
R.
191
HUMAN BONES FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGIST
TESAR
C.
errors
Dailey.
are
Any
lacking
attributable
to
to a
poor note-taking and not
failure in presentation by Dr.
Dailey.
Glossary
There are generally 206 bones in an
additional
adult skeleton; although,
Not
accessory bones may also occur.
all bones and terms are included in
focuses
which
presentation,
this
primarily on bones and terms included
in the proceeding three articles.
The tooth
Alveolar Processes:
bearing regions of the maxilla
and mandible.
means "Before Death",
Antemorten:
and refers to something which
occurred while the individual
alive.
was still
the posterior margin of the
and the interior
ascending
the body.
margin of ramus
t he
Bone Reabsorption:
ody
As a result of
trauma, calcium deficiency, or
disease the body may reabsorb
Examples include the
bone.
bone resulting in the
absorbed
tooth roots in the skull
exposed
(illustrated in Figure 1).
This refers to the side of
Buccal:
pre-molar and molar teeth which
faces the cheek.
This reBunched or Bundle Burial:
fers to a form of secondary
interment in which the flesh has
been removed and the cleaned
bones placed, in many instances,
in a basket or other container
which is then buried or reburTypically the skull will
ied.
be at one end, the pelvic girdle
other, the long bones on
at the
side or both sides and
either
remaining bones in the
the
middle.
A point or
Anterior (or Ventral):
region which lies in front or
toward the front surface.
Broad or round headBrachycephalic:
(see cranial index)
ed.
A surface to which
Particular Facet:
such as a
two bones articulate,
facet on a
rib head to the
thoracic rib.
The point at
Bregma (Figure 1):
which the frontal and two parieat
tal bones of the skull meet
coronal
the intersection of the
and sagittal sutures.
Refers to bones joined
Articulated:
position in
or lying in the
joined in life.
which they were
a primary interment
For example,
has an articulated skeleton.
The
Calva or Calotte
skull-cap alone
cervical
The first
Atlas (Figure 2):
It articulates with
vertebra.
the base of the skull and the
To
axis, upon which it pivots.
allow the head to turn from side
to side.
A skull lacking only the
Calvariu:
lower jaw.
The ear
Auditory Meatua (Figure 1):
canal in the side of the skull.
The second cervical
Axis (Figure 2):
distinThe axis is
vertebra.
guished by an upward thumb-like
projection (the deas or
odontoid process) upon which
atlas pivots.
the
The most anterior point on
Baaiom:
the edge of te foramen magnum of
the skull in the mid-sagittal
i-Breadth
sulith
thplane.
A sacrum (see figure
Bifid Sacrum:
6) in which the bone covering
incomover the spinal cord is
this
Individuals with
plete.
the
condition risk paralysis of
'unprolower body if the
pinched
tected' spinal cord is
result
or otherwise damaged as a
of this condition.
Bigonal Breadth: The greatest
breadth between the onions of
the mandible measured from the
mid-point of the angle formed by
braincase or
Calvaria: A skull lacking the lover
jaw nd facial region.
Cariea: Another word for "cavities"
in teeth.
The wrist bones,
Carples (Figure ):
consisting of two rows of four
bones each.
a
L
C
Cephlic length and Bredth figuree
Cephalic Length (Figure 1)
1):
is obtained by measuring from the
Clabella (at the brow ridge) to
the pisthocranion on the
occipital bone along the midwhere the maximum
sagittal plane
diameter is obtained. Cephalic
the maximum
is
of the
transverse diameter
skull.
In
Cervical Vertebra (See Figure 2):
addition to the Atlas and Axis
there are five other cervical
vertebra composing the neck
bones.
The collar
Clavicle (Figure 3):
bone. It is elongated and
slightly S-shaped.
Cloacae:
Coccyx
Crater-like
(Figure 7):
drainage holes.
The tail
bone,
192
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
(37(4),
1984)
Coronal Suture
Frontal Bone
/-!'i
I
: ~? - ( ~
Parietal Bone
"ure
~~~~~Squamosal
Suture
Nasa l---f~8l~,t~i~j~b~Eik~~lb~l~d~%d~g~~~/l~
-- Sphenoid
Bone
Temporal Bone
Auditory Meatus
Mastoid Process
Zygomatic Arch
Cranial Uidtk
uro noCo
id
Process
Mandibular Notch
Ment.Zyoati
Bamus
RF--
poiondslof
measurement.a
Ip
B
,,..T
.Ig
Archr
- C···i~l
l··lca
TESAR
HUMAN BONES FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGIST
-
-Transverse
Y,
6t
Articular
ToracicSurface
__
A sBody
7th Cervical
Spinal
t
7thtCervicals4
i~ '-
.
.-
~.~ __~
_~..,, ,:of~
~:~
~i-',
, ...:. , ~- : ~
4th Cervical
Figure 2.
2.
Figure
193
3rd Lumbar
Vertebrae
(all upper
upper left
left posterior
posterior views).
Vertebrae (all
views).
Canal
Spinous
Process
Process
.-...
~_,~
,...
(37(4), 1984)
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
194
Clavicular Notch
Juglar Notch
II
I
Manubrium
(Anterior View)
Body
VII
Ir7/%
(Posterior
i
-Xiphoid
View)
Process
'a
(Anterior
a
Figure 3.
(Lower)
or Collar Bone;
(Right
Side View)
(Upper Right)
Right Scapula or Shoulder Blade.
(Costal Surface)
(Dorsal Surface)
Sternum;
View)
r-Apex
(Upper Left) Right Clavle
Sternum;
//
(Lower)
Right Scapula
or Shoulder Blade.
TESAR
HUMAN BONES FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGIST
which is composed of four reduced
vertebrae extending downward from
the apex of the Sacrum.
Condyle:
Smooth, rounded, articulated eminances or processes.
The
Condylar Process (Figure 1):
rounded projection on the upper
portion of the jaw or manidible
where it articultes with the
skull.
The suCoronal Suture (Figure 1):
ture between the frontal and
parietal skull bones.
Coronoid Process (Figure 1):
The
crow's beak shaped process on the
upper forward part of the ramus
of the mandible.
The
Cranial Breadth (see Figure 1):
maximum transverse diameter of
the skull.
Index
(see
Cranial
(or
Cephalic)
Figure 1):
Cranial Breadth times 100
divided by cranial length. A
value of 74.9 or less indicates a
narrow or long headed skull
(Dolichocranial or Dolichocephalic); 7i0 - 79.9 indicates
shaped
an average or medium
skull (Mesocranial or
Mesocephalic); 80.0-84.9
indicates a broad°or round headed
skull (Brachycranial or Brachycephalic); and, 85.0 or greater
indicates a very broad skull
(Hyperbrachycranial or
Hyperbrachycephalic.
Cranial Height (see Figure 1):
The
distance from the Basion to the
Bregma.
The
Cranial Length (see Figure 1):
distance from the Glabella to
opistocranium.
The skull, the
Cranium (Figure 1):
head, face and lower jaw.
Dental Attrition:
Tooth wear.
Flexed Burial:
Is a primary interment in which the body is bent,
often into a fetal position,
rather than fully
extended.
The bone
Frontal Bone (Figure 1):
forming the forehead and top of
the eye orbits.
This is
Fronto-occipital Flattening:
an artificial flattening of the
skull caused by fastening a
cradle board against an infant's
forehead and back of skull while
it is still playable and forming.
The result is a flattened, broad
head (Hyperbracbycephalic).
the most
Clabella (see Figure 1):
prominent point separating the
brow ridges in the mid-sagittal
plane, and above the fronto-nasal
suture of the skull.
Rip or Innominate Bone (Figure 7):
Is formed by the fusing of the
Illium, Ischibm, and Pubis Bones.
Humerus (Figure 4):
bone.
A point or region which
Inferior:
lies below another point or
region in the normal articulated
position.
The base of the external
Inion:
occipital protuberance in the
mid-sagittal plane.
The suture beLaubdoidal Suture:
tween the parietals and
occipital skull bones.
Lumbar Vertebrae:
bra.
Dolichocranic:
(see Cranial Index).
Epiphysis:
A bone extremity expanded
for articulation.
Bxostoses:
A bony tumor on the surface of a bone.
Femur (Figure 8):
bone.
Fibula (Figure 8):
bone.
Thigh or upper leg
Lower leg brace
Lower
back verte-
Lower jaw bone.
Mandible (Figure 1):
Either
Mastoid Process (Figure 1):
of the two, breast-like
projection at the base of either
side of the skull.
Maxilla (Figure 1):
Mesocranic:
Distal:
The lower end or point farthest from the joint connecting
it to the body. This
term is
usually used with long bones,
except the digits (fingers
and
toes).
The upper arm
Upper jaw bone.
(see Cranial Index).
Metacarplea (Figure ):
hand bones.
Metatarsals (Figure 9):
bones.
Nasal Bone (Figure 1):
Palm or lower
Lower foot
Bose bone.
Hasion (Figure 1):
The point of
juncture of the fronto-nasal and
inter-nasal sutures of the skull
between the eyes.
Occipital Bone:
The bone at the base
of the head.
Occipital Protuberance: The rounded
eminence on the occipital bone at
the back of the skull. This
195
(37(4),
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
196
1984)
Proximal End
G
>,;Head~ ~R
reater Tubercle
G''Un"
Troclear
Ta
I
/
__
arm bon
bones.
Lesser
s
Tuberclerm
r
N1:I:
Ntotch
(
a
Tuberosity
(,Righ
~~~~~~Neck
t~I
4.
I,
i
Radial Fossa
Coronoid
Radia
;
Fossa
Medial
Epicondyl
.
Styloid
'
a
...
Trochlea
Lateral Epiconoyle
(Anterior
Figure
4.
View)
(Posterior
(Lateral
View)
Ulna
~'~,--Radius
View)
End
Distal
(Anterior
(Left) Right humerus or upper arm bone;
radius and Ulna or lower arm bones.
Process
(Lateral
View)
(Right)
Right
View)
,1A^
/*»
(f"B
Fingersate
Phalax;
=
t-3
Capiate
(Proximalor Phlanges)
daPhalaxD (Digits
x.
D _________________
-Wrist
Trapezium.
Right Hand.(Left) Palmer View; (Right) Dorsal View.
_
4siform
-
Figure 5.
,_
P
Lunate
Capitate
H
(37(4), 1984)
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
198
I'''
diseases of prehistoric and early
(Dorsal View)
(Anterjo-Dlstal View,
Figure 6.
Sacrum.
feature is more prominent in
males than females.
r
e
v
e
S
OsteomyelitiI:
n
o
c
marro~
evidence
withofThe
tion
suture
Occipito-ua~told Suture:
~~~~~~~~~~~''
involvement.~
cavity
bone
separating the Occipital
from the mastoid region of the
temporal bones of the skull.
Odontometric:
Boney eye sockets.
involvemenat.
Regions:
cavity
Orbit-l
Ogteomyelttis:
Paleopathology:
The study of
peoples.
The bones
Parietal Bones (Figure 1):
on the side to crown of the
skull.
consequences
be
The metric measurement...
Severe bone inflama-
e
s
A general term referring to
Osteitis:
(vascular) inflammation of bone.
~~~
n
one
b
·
~~~~~~·
quences
e
Bone diseases; or,
Osteopathology:
the study of bone diseases.
historic
The metric measurement
The point of the
opIathocraniom:
at the
occipital
marrow
of greatest
evidence
tion with bone
distance from the Glabella.-
Osteometric:
of bones.
Left Side)
of the
inflamation
The suture
Sutnre:
PferiottDs:
Parieto--astoid ild
toid
ad and mastoid
fas
Mil
parietal
tween
the
between
skull bones.
.
The science of the nature
Pathology:
processof disease, its causes,
es, development, and
cavity involvement.
A condition of
Osteolytic Carclnoma:
bone degeneration resulting from
the removal or lose of calcium,
bone restricted to the periosteum
of the outer layer as a result of
external injury.
inflm-egdvlpet
-
LI-....·
.'-
.- .
i
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-2
. ·--
'>.-%..... IJllac
.i
~ ,.....
,,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
..-':
Crest
."L
~ " .''.
.. 1;-..'.~'t
*ha
'' _
Z~~~~·,..
.
.<
-.
'~~
,'
"'1r ..
f'3'!.
f...
· ~~~~_
,
~Articular
:2!
,
r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
·
,.
0
.
·"C
r
~
I.~
*'
"V
z
Sciaticac
I
/
Lesser
Greater
Notch
Sciatic
reaterNotch
~Y ~ipa~;
:
Seiatic
abulum
~
~
H
burto
0
Pubic
Symp.ysis
Noth
Cornu.
Acetabulum
Bod
'
,!
I',.
I
~
~~~~~~~~~
(Medial View)
(Lateral
1'~~~~~~~--
Pubic~
Pevi
(Pevi
bi
~I~ ~
~~
(H~~~~~~~~~~~'
i(Posterior
(Pelvic
0
0
View)
View)
Process
View)b
'3
edial
Lateral
(Pos~(Lteralr
View) View)a
-~~~~r(Dorsal
Apex
Figure 7.
P
View
Transverse
CDornul
View)
He
"
O
e
Oiw
Facet
Apex
(Upper) Right Ilium and Ischium. or Hip Bone; (Lower Left)
Coccyx or Tail Bone; (Lower Right) Right Petella.
'
HaGreater
Trochanter
A'.1
Styloid
Process
Lateral
Condyle
1
T_~i~'uberosity
I-
I
!','
·j'
I.
8
1984)
Medial Intercondyloid
Eminences
Condyle
Vl R
I
'
Trochanter
i'
(37(4),
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
200
m;
g
LBodyn
)
:,i-~
Tibia.
Medial Malleous
Fibula
petellar' Surface
(Anterior View)
Figure 8.
posteriorr
View)
(Posterior
(Left) Right Femur;
Leg Bones
Medial Malleous
Tibia.
Tibia
(Anterior Vie)
(Right)
(Po
Right Fibula and
or
st CuneiformE
Dl
;"
2nd Cuneiform
M
3rd Cuneiform
P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
P~~~~~~
/.!.?
,.
.
w
0
'I
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
5:
.a
_·;
j
C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~''
i
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Navicular
IH,~,
Ist
etatarsus
Q
I~~~~~~~~~~,
uueiform
Cuneiform
Cubold
.
· .i)
.
.-
2
3rd
Cuneiform
(Top
Navicular :boi,
View)
(Top Yie~~~~.,),
.I~~~~:(
C~~~bD~~~d
Ba~~~icul~~~~r
Calcaneous
,
(Bottom View)
O
CH
Calcaneous
,alus
'
,'1Talus
(Top View)
Figure
9.
(Bottom View)
Right Foot (Left) Articulated, (Right) Tarsal Bones, Except left
talus
& calcaneous, P = Proximal Phalanx; M
Medial Phalanx; D = Distal
o
C
(37(4),
THE FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGIST
202
Petella (Figure 7):
Phalanx (Figures
toe bones.
Platycnemic:
Kneecap.
and 8):
Finger and
The
Squaosal Suture (Figure 1):
suture separating the parietal
bones from the superior portion
of the temporal bones of the
skull.
Flat tibia.
Sternum (Figure
The most superior
Portion (Figure 1):
point in the upper edge of the
external auditory meatus.
Porion-Bregua or Bregma-Porion:
Cranial height (see Figure 1).
Poat-Cranial Skeleton: The approxilately 177 bones below the
skull.
The point or
Posterior (or Dorsal):
surregion lying near the back
face.
3):
Breast bone.
The point or region which
Superior:
lies above another point or
region in a normal articulated
position.
Sutures: are
joining
the regular lines
the skull bones.
Synovial Cavity:
Sinus cavity.
The group of
Tarsals (Figure 9):
seven bones forming the base or
instep of the foot.
The upper end or point
Proximal:
nearest to the joint connecting a
Usually used
bone to the body.
with long bones, except digits.
The bones
Temporal Bones (Figure 1):
on the side of the skull below
the parietals, and having the
auditory meatus and mastoid
feaprocess as two identifying
tures.
The burial of an
Primary Interment:
articulated body, as represented
by the skeleton being recovered
in anatomical position.
The
Thoracic Vertebrae (Figure 2):
vertebrae at the back of the
chest area to which the ribs
articulate.
The smaller of
Radius (Figure 4):
Unlike
the two lower arm bones.
the Ulna, the distal end is the
of the
larger
end of
radius.
the radius.
larger end
The
Tibia (Figure 8):
the lower leg.
Post-Mortem:
After death.
The upward pro(Figure 1):
jaw or
the jaw
sides of
ejecting sides
or
of the
jecting
mandible.
lamus
The roughly triSacrun (Figure 6):
Sacrum
angular shaped bone formed of
five fused vertebrae which form
the posterior wall of the pelvic
girdle.
hin bone of
The larger of the
Ulna (Figure 4):
It is
two lower arm bones.
the hook-like
distinguished by
distinguished by the hook-like
process at the proximal end.
Zygomatic
bone. Arch (Figure
1):
The cheek
The suture separatSagittal Suture:
the
ing the parietal bones at
top of the skull.
Scapula (Figure 3):
Shoulder blade.
Louis D. Tesar
Bureau of Historic Preservation
Refers to the
Secondary Interment:
remains of a body which have been
conburied in an unarticulated
edition, indicating exposure or
Usually
exudation and reburial.
refers to bundle burials.
An inherited
Shoveling of Incisors:
associated with Native
trait
Americans or Esquimos in which
the posterior side (inside) of
incisor teeth is concave.
the
The skull bone
Sphenoid (Figure 1):
forming the anterior portion of
the base of the vault, portions
of the orbits and portions of the
walls anterior to the temporals.
Division of Archives, History
archives, Histor
Division f
and Records Management
Department of State
Ca
The
e
Captol
Tallahassee, Florida
32301-8020
321-
1984)