Download Field Report - Indus Experiences

Contents
Page number
Brief itinerary
Introduction
Introduction to the Geology
Introduction to the Ecology
Time line – Table 1
Day 5 itinerary
Day 6 itinerary
Day 7 itinerary
Day 8 itinerary
Day 9 itinerary
Day 10 itinerary
Day 11 itinerary
Day 12 itinerary
Day 13 itinerary
Day 14 itinerary
Ecological studies
Pollination syndromes – Table 2
Key to pollination syndromes – Table 3
Flower visitation report form – Table 4
Glossary of plant terms
Glossary of geological terms
Bibliography
Space for notes
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Brief Itinerary
Day 1
Saturday 27 June
Depart London Heathrow by direct British Airways flight for Delhi.
Day 2
Sunday 28 June
Arrive Delhi 08.20. Transfer to Hotel Shangrila-Eros. Rest of the day
free in Delhi.
Day 3
Monday 29 June
Fly Delhi to Srinagar (altitude 1730 m). Enjoy the ambience of life on a
houseboat and take a late afternoon shikara ride on Nagin Lake.
Day 4
Tuesday 30 June
Srinagar. Visit the Mughul gardens and historic old town and enjoy
free time to explore. Evening introduction to the main themes of the
tour.
Day 5
Wednesday 1 July
Srinagar. Day trip to Khunamuh (Guryul Ravine) to look at sedimentary
rocks of the Permian /Triassic boundary and the basic volcanic rocks of
the Panjal Traps.
Day 6
Thursday 2 July
Srinagar to Sonamarg. Morning in Dachigam National Park and bear
sanctuary to see a mix of familiar and more exotic plants and animals.
Drive to Sonamarg (altitude 2800 m) after lunch, noting the changing
geology (Quaternary sediments, Panjal Traps, Triassic limestone etc.)
and ecology.
Day 7
Friday 3 July
Sonamarg. Walk to Thajiwas glacier, observing typical glacial features
and looking at lichens as a link between geology and ecology. Compare
the ecology here with that seen in Srinagar.
Day 8
Saturday 4 July
Sonamarg to Kargil (altitude 2676 m). Drive across the spectacular Zoji
La pass (3528 m), looking at diverse geology and ecology en route.
Geology includes highly deformed Triassic limestone, metamorphic
rocks of the Zanskar Crystalline, basic volcanic rocks of Panjal and
Drass, granitic rocks of Kargil igneous complex and Indus Molasse.
Day 9
Sunday 5 July
Kargil to Nurla. Morning visit to the Museum of Central Asia, then
drive to Nurla via Shergol valley and the Namika La (3718 m) and Fatu
La (4108m) passes, taking in the rocks of the Indus Suture Zone (ISZ).
Visit Lamayuru monastery with panoramic views of the sediments of
the now-empty Lamayuru lake (‘Moonland’). Descend to Nurla
(altitude 3040 m) for overnight stay in Apricot Tree Hotel.
Day 10
Monday 6 July
Nurla to Leh. Morning relaxing at Nurla (optional walk along the Indus)
then drive to Leh (altitude 3524 m) after lunch, looking at geology en
route. Evening visit to Leh market and Shankar Gompa.
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Day 11
Tuesday 7 July
Leh. Visit Thiksey monastery and Shey palace, getting close up and
bird's eye views of the rocks of the Ladakh Batholith on which they sit.
Lunch at Shey, looking at the ecology of the Indus flood plain and the
ancient lake bed.
Day 12
Wednesday 8 July
Leh. Visit Hemis monastery, sitting on the Indus Molasse, in the
morning. Lunch and afternoon in Hemis National Park to look at high
altitude vegetation and spectacular rock formations of the surrounding
peaks. Visit Karu to see the contact between the Indus Molasse and
Ladakh Batholith. Possible evening talk on Snow Leopard conservation.
Day 13
Thursday 9 July
Leh to Pangong Tso. Leave after breakfast for Pangong Tso high
altitude lake (4250 m) via Chang La pass (5360 m). Observe how
vegetation changes with altitude and other factors. Observe the
changing geology on descent to Pangong, as we leave behind the rocks
of the Ladakh Batholith. Look at some of the microscopic life in the
lake. Overnight in tented camps.
Day 14
Friday 10 July
Pangong Tso to Leh. Drive back to Leh, looking out for wildlife on the
return trip. Afternoon free in Leh.
Day 15
Saturday 11 July
Fly from Leh to Delhi, leaving 08.20. Day free in Delhi with overnight
stay in Hotel Shangrila-Eros.
Day 16
Sunday 12 July
Depart Delhi for London, 10.25.
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Introduction
The unique geology and topography of the Himalayas, created by the ongoing collision of the Indian
subcontinent and Eurasia, make it one of the most exciting places in the world for geologists.
However the environmental conditions created by the collision also make the region fascinating for
anyone interested in how plants, animals, and indeed people, adapt themselves to this most harsh
and fragile of environments.
In Rocks, Routes and Shoots we will travel through the spectacular landscape of one of the world’s
most rapidly growing mountain ranges, from Kashmir to Ladakh. In Kashmir we will see many
familiar plants but, as we gain height and the geology opens out, we will see how plants have had to
adapt in extraordinary ways to the constraints imposed by cold, drought and intense solar radiation.
We will look at how plants are used by the people of Kashmir and Ladakh, both for food and shelter,
and will see evidence of the threats to traditional ways of life posed by global warming.
The Himalayan mountain range, the world’s youngest orogenic belt, runs in a 2500 km arc in a northwesterly to south-easterly direction along the north-east border of India. It marks the region where,
between 50 and 40 million years ago, the Indian continental plate finally collided with Eurasia, after
breaking free from Pangaea and drifting northwards. The Tethys Ocean between the continental
plates gradually shrank whilst, at the same time, crustal rocks were compressed and thickened – a
process still continuing today. The low density of the continental crust means that isostasy causes
additional uplift, contributing to the Himalayas having the highest rates of uplift anywhere in the
world – up to 1 cm a year in the area around Nanga Parbat.
The effect of the collision of two continents and the different organisms they carried, plus the
continually changing environment of the Himalayas today, gives rise to a wide range of plants and
animals. We hope to show some of the geology of the Himalayan mountains and its ecological
consequences on this trip.
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Introduction to the Geology
On India’s northward journey towards Eurasia, two subduction zones were active. The most
northerly one was an oceanic –continental boundary at the edge of the Eurasian plate, akin to that
producing the Andes today. The other was an oceanic-oceanic boundary creating an island arc
within the shrinking Tethys Ocean (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. The northward movement of the Indian continental plate after breaking from Pangaea (after
Guillot et al., 2003)
Many recent papers suggest that the island arc collided with Eurasia before India reached it but
some of the most recent suggest that the opposite may be true – India may have collided first with
the island arc before the whole thing collided with Eurasia (Bouilhal et al., 2011; Jagoutz et al.,
2015).
The Himalayan mountain range produced by this collision divides into five major tectonic zones,
separated by a series of major thrusts. Our trip will take us mainly through the most northerly two of
these – the Tethys Himalaya and the Trans-Himalaya. The Tethys Himalaya are a thick pile of marine
sediments deposited on the northern, passive margin of the Indian continental plate, above PreCambrian basement rocks. The older sediments predate the collision of India and Eurasia by many
millions of years.
The Indus Suture Zone (ISZ) forms the northern boundary of the Tethys Himalaya (the Indian plate)
in Ladakh (Fig. 2). North of this, the Trans-Himalaya comprise igneous and metamorphic rocks of the
Shyok Suture Zone, produced as a result of vulcanism in the island arc which formed between the
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Indian and Eurasian plates. The Karakorum mountains to the north of this are a product of the
collision.
Introduction to the ecology
The plant ecology on our trip will be based around two linked themes; plant diversity and
adaptations of plants to the environment. Some of the plants we see will be very familiar as many
Himalayan species have found their way to our gardens, collected by 19th Century plant hunters such
as Joseph Hooker and adopted by horticulturalists here.
For botanists, the Himalayas have long been regarded as something of a paradise. One of the world’s
‘biodiversity hotspots’, the region is home to over 3000 endemic species of plant, found naturally
nowhere else on Earth. The range of climatic conditions on offer is one reason for this diversity – the
Himalayas lie close to the Tropic of Cancer but rise abruptly from near sea level to more than 8000
m, so a wide range of ecosystems exist in close proximity to one another. Alluvial grasslands give
way to subtropical and temperate broadleaved forests in the foothills and are replaced, in turn, by
coniferous forest and finally alpine meadows. A few cushion plants can survive even in the harsh
permanent rock and ice zone at altitudes of 5500 to 6000 m. Aspect, topography and the diverse
underlying geology are also significant.
Where did all these plants come from? 200 million years ago (Ma), when the ancestors of flowering
plants first appeared, India was still part of Pangaea. When Pangaea started to break apart (165
Ma), early angiosperms were already widespread and diverse and by the time the Indian and
Eurasian plates started to collide, around 55 Ma, angiosperm trees dominated many environments.
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The collision would have brought into proximity two quite different groups of species which had
been evolving separately for millions of years.
The Himalayan orogeny continues today and the uplift goes hand-in-hand with rapid erosion, both
processes resulting in the production of new surfaces which organisms such as lichens are quick to
exploit. Once a little organic matter has accumulated, plants can soon acquire a root-hold.
Continued uplift means that plants have to adapt, gradually, to changes in altitude as well as in the
topography of their surroundings, with all that means for temperature and availability of light, water
and mineral nutrients. Some species are known to have evolved in response to the change in their
habitat due to uplift (e.g. Himalayan mayapple). The aridity of the highest land also means that
populations of plants in adjacent valley bottoms are geographically isolated from one another,
another factor which drives the emergence of new species.
Plants found in the higher reaches of the Himalayas are well adapted to the conditions in which they
live, protecting themselves from cold, heat, drought and intense solar radiation in turn. We’ll look at
some of these adaptations at close quarters as we travel from the lush Kashmir valley to bone dry
Ladakh, seeing the effects of altitude, moisture availability and light intensity, for example, on plants
and how they reproduce. We will also see something of the effect that the environment has on the
diversity of both plants and lichens.
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Time Line – based on International Geological Time Scale (old names in brackets)
Age
(Ma)
0–
0.117
0.0117
– 2.58
Eon
Era
Period
Epoch
Notes
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Quarternary
Holocene
E.g. alluvium next to the
Jhelum river at Pampore.
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Quarternary
Pleistocene

2.58 5.333
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Neogene
(Tertiary)
Pleiocene



5.333 23.03
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Neogene
(Tertiary)
Miocene



23.03 33.9
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Palaeogene
(Tertiary)
Oligocene


33.9 56.0
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Palaeogene
(Tertiary)
Eocene






Karewa Group sediments
lie unconformably above
Panjal traps and Triassic
limestone in Kashmir.
Deposited on lake bottom
from glacial meltwater record of
glacial/interglacial events.
ISZ particularly active
Modern humans appear
Continued uplift of
continents allows spread
of grasslands
Kargil Igneous Complex –
plutonic body intruded in
the Indus collision zone
Uplift of Himalayas
creates new, alpine
habitats
Climatic cooling and uplift
restricts broadleaved
evergreens to lower
latitudes
Mild temperate climates
Widespread occurrence of
now-relic taxa e.g.
Metasequoia
Indian continental plate
continues to collide with
Eurasian plate. Speed of
collision drops.
Subtropical climates with
heavy rainfall support
distinct angiosperm
forests
Lamayuru Formation
sediments laid down on
passive margin of Indian
plate as Tethys sea closes
Deposition of Indus
Formation (marine and
terrestrial sediments)
Ladakh Batholith intruded
into Drass volcanics during
collision.
Lamayuru lake formed
around 40 Ma due to
tectonic activity damming
drainage route.
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
56.066.0
Phanerozioc
Cenozoic
Palaeogene
(Tertiary)
Paleocene
66.0 100.5
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Upper
Cretaceous
100.5 145.0
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Lower
Cretaceous
145.0 163.5
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Upper Jurassic
163.5 174.1
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Middle Jurassic
174.1 201.3
201.3 -
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Lower Jurassic
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Triassic
Upper Triassic
Khardung acid volcanics
en route to Pangong –
sub-aerial eruption
associated with island
volcanic arc
 Continent-continent
interaction between India
and Eurasia starts about
65 Ma in the Tethys
Himalaya. Leads to
development of KohistanLadakh volcanic arc on the
Eurasian plate margin
 Some modern groups of
birds
 India continues to drift
north and rotates counterclockwise.
 Oceanic-oceanic
subduction continues until
the oceanic basin closes
and oceanic ophiolite is
obducted onto the Indian
plate – includes Shergol
ophiolitic mélange
 Nindam formation
sediments of
volcanic/oceanic origin
deposited in the forearc
basin of the KohistanLadakh volcanic arc
 Angiosperms rise to
dominance – diverse
flower structures
 East Gondwana further
splits about 120 M and
Indian ocean opens. India
drifts northwards.
 Oceanic crust of Neotethys
continues to be subducted
along the Drass volcanic
arc
 Angiosperm pollen, leaves
and flowers found –
monocots and dicots.
Drass volcanics form – a
product of island arc volcanics
at a subduction zone.
 Plant communities of
ginkgos, conifers, ferns
and cycads
 Dinosaurs!
East Gondwana separating
from Africa about 184 Ma.

Gondwana starting to split
in two. India part of East
10
237
237 247.2
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Triassic
MiddleTriassic
247.2 252.17
Phanerozioc
Mesozoic
Triassic
Lower Triassic
252.17 259.8
259.8 272.3
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Permian
Lopingian
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Permian
Guadalupian
Gondwana, along with
Australia and Antarctica.
Diversification of
gymnosperms, ginkgos
and cycads.
 First flowering plants
appear.
 Triassic limestones lie
above the Khunamah
Formation. Highly
deformed around
Sonamarg.
 Decline of glossopterids.
 Arid climate in continental
interiors
 Appearance of first
mammals
 Khunamah Formation
visible at Guryul Ravine
marks P-T boundary. No
break between sediments.
 Lamayuru Formation
sediments laid down on
passive margin of Indian
plate as Tethys Ocean
opens.
At P-T boundary, India is still
part of Gondwana/Pangaea.


272.3 298.9
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Permian
Cisuralian




298.9 307.0
307.0 315.2
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Carboniferous
Upper
Pennsylvanian
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Carboniferous
Middle
Pennsylvanian



Zewan formation (marine
limestone and shales)
overlie…
Gangamopteris beds (also
contain Glossopteris
fossils)
India part of Gondwana.
Separated from Eurasia by
Paleo-Tethys Ocean.
Much further south than
at present, so much
colder.
North India affected by
late phase of Pan-African
orogeny.
Fine grained flood basalts
of Panjal traps erupted
onto volcanic ash during
early-mid Permian.
Warm, humid climates –
great Carboniferous
swamps
Mosses, ferns and seed
ferns
Appearance of conifers
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and reptiles,
diversification of
amphibians and insects
315.2 323.2
323.2 330.9
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Carboniferous
Lower
Pennsylvanian
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Carboniferous
Upper
Mississippian
330.9 346.7
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Carboniferous
Middle
Mississippian
346.7 358.9
358.9 419.2
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Carboniferous
Lower
Mississippian
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Devonian
419.2 443.8
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Silurian
443.8 485.4
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Ordovician
485.4 541.0
Phanerozioc
Paleozoic
Cambrian
541.0 2500
Precambrian
(Cryptozoic)
Proterozoic
2500 4600
Precambrian
(Cryptozoic)
Archean &
Hadean
Early stage of rifting between
India, modern day Iran,
Afghanistan, Tibet
 Ferns and seed ferns
associated with extensive
lowland swamps
 Spread of amphibians and
fish, insects with wings

Diversification of vascular
plants apart from
flowering plants
 Diversification of fish,
origin of amphibians
 First land plants and
vascular plants
 First air-breathing animals
 Brachiopods and corals
 Continental
conglomerates laid down
above unconformity
 Abundant red and green
algae
 Variety of marine
invertebrates (graptolites,
nautiloids) and first
vertebrates
 Marine sediments of the
Tethys Himalayas
deposited on northern
passive margin of Indian
continental plate. Granitic
intrusions c. 500 Ma (
result of Pan-African
orogeny)
 Cyanobacteria, red and
green algae
 First trilobites and
foraminifers
Salkhala Series of the Pir Panjal
range, visible all around the
Kashmir valley. Low grade
metamorphic rocks.
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Rocks, Routes and Shoots Geology and Ecology
Day 5 (July 1): Day trip from Srinagar
We will visit Khunamuh (Guryul Ravine) to look at sedimentary rocks of the Permian /Triassic
boundary and the basic volcanic rocks of the Panjal Traps. Possible stop at Pandrethan (the well
preserved remains of a 10th C. Hindu temple) en route.
The geological succession as seen at Guryul ravine includes the Panjal Volcanic rocks and the
sedimentary Gangamopteris beds, Zewan Formation and Khunamah Formation (Figs 3 & 4).
Fig. 3. Map showing the Late Permian & Triassic sequence at Guryul Ravine,
Khunamah after Bhat & Bhat (1977)
Fig. 4. The Guryul Ravine at Khunamah (from Geological Notes for Finnish Geologists Field Trip to NW
Himalaya and Karakorum, 2012)
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Panjal Traps
These are basic, fine grained flood basalts extruded onto volcanic ash during the Lower to Middle
Permian (300 – 260 Ma). Two basal flows produced a series of beds. The basalt contains vesicles –
smaller rounded ones in the upper layers and larger elongated ones in lower parts. Some are filled
with secondary minerals. Quartz veins fill joints and fractures.
These are overlain by….
Gangamopteris beds (Late Permian)
Beds of chert, silicaceous and carbonaceous shales and thin bedded limestones. Basal layer is white
or cream chert, produced by silification of limestone. Shales contain Gangamopteris and
Glossopteris (fossil fern) remains. Glossopteris fossils provide good evidence for India as part of
Pangaea - also found in Antarctica, Australia and southern parts of Africa and S. America (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Glossopteris fossil from the Antarctic collected by Captain Scott (Natural History Museum)
The Gangamopteris beds are sometimes regarded as the basal layer of the overlying Zewan
formation…
Zewan formation (Permian) comprises sandy limestone and calcareous shales - fossiliferous.



Basal layers laid down in shallow seas, away from the coast (edge of the continental shelf, up to
200 m deep), free from land-derived sediments – likely to contain fossils of tube worms,
molluscs etc.
Second stage of deposition in deeper water beyond the continental shelf (200-3000 m) – fewer
fossils.
Final stage is carbonate rocks, due to sea becoming shallower – the middle part of this comprises
alternating layers of calcareous sandstone and sandy shale. Fossils here include early
ammonites, foraminifera, bryozoans, molluscs and conodonts (extinct chordates) (Fig. 6).
Upper part of the formation is thickly-bedded sandy limestone with some sandy shale, and
sandstones cemented with clay minerals and calcite. Seismites have been produced here as a
result of soft sediment deformation produced by seismic activity.
14
Fig. 6. Conodont fossils from West Pingdingshan sections of Chaohu, China (Zhao et al., 2008)
An abrupt change in rock appearance (not an unconformity) leads to ….
Khunamuh Formation (Permo-Triassic to Triassic)
This comprises alternating layers of limestone and flaggy shale. Guryul Ravine is rare in being one of
the places on Earth where there is no break between latest Permian and the youngest Triassic
sediments.

Lower Permo-Triassic unit (2.6 m thick) is black shale with thin, discontinuous limestone
intercalations. Contains both Triassic (Claraia – Fig.7) and Permian (Etheripecten haydeni and
Paleolima middlemissi) bivalves plus same conodont fossils as upper part of Zewan Formation.
Fig. 7. Claraia fossils from the Dolomite mountains, Italy (photo by Wolfgang Moroder,
Wikimedia Commons)
15

Middle (lower Triassic) unit (6.1 m deep) is flaggy shale with thin limestone beds. Contains fossil
ammonoids (e.g. Otoceras woodwardi, Glyptophiceras himalayanum and Lytophiceras
sakuntala) plus bivalves and condonts.

Upper unit (9.9 m) is alternating shale and limestone. Seismites have been produced here too,
as in Late Permian sediments.
Triassic Limestone formation (found elsewhere in the area unconformably on Panjal Traps)
Lies above the Khunamuh group sediments. Lower, middle and upper parts.
Lower part is 100 m thick and contains ammonoid fossils.
Pampore
Pampore lies on alluvial soil above the Karewa sediments, right next to the Jhelum river, and is the
heart of the saffron growing industry.
Day 6 – Srinagar to Sonamarg
Visit Dachigam National Park and bear sanctuary in morning, picnic lunch.
At Dachigam we will look at some familiar and unfamiliar plants and start to consider plant diversity,
plant adaptations to their environment and pollination syndromes. We will make leaf epidermal
peels which we can look at in the hotel in the evening. We will also estimate the abundance of
lichens of different colours.
Separate worksheets for this are at the back of the handbook, along with a glossary of plant
terminology you might find helpful.
Drive to Sonamarg (altitude 2800 m) after lunch, noting the changing geology (Quaternary
sediments, Panjal Traps, Triassic limestone etc.) and ecology.
Fig. 8 shows some of the rocks seen en route…
16
Fig. 8. Map of lithographical units along the road between Srinagar and Sonamarg (after Thakur & Rawat,
1992)
Karewa Group sediments (Kashmir valley)
These are Quarternary sediments (2000 m thick). Lie on top of an unconformity above Panjal Traps
and Triassic limestone – provide record of Pleistocene glacial/interglacial events. Nearly horizontal
strata because these are sediments deposited at the base of a lake derived from glacial meltwater.



Lower Karewa/Hirpur Formation is 1675 m deep. Comprises a basal conglomerate, and
laminated beds of silt, clay, sands and lignite.
Middle Karewa/Nagum Formation is 610 m deep – finely laminated clays, sands and silts.
Upper Karewa/Dilpur Formation is just 10-25 m thick and comprises windblown loessic
sediments interbedded with fossil soils – evidence of glacial and interglacial periods during the
Holocene. Should be visible near Kangan/Karapora.
Salkhala Series
Basal layer of Precambrian rocks visible much of way between Kangan and Sonamarg. Mainly low
grade metamorphic rocks –slates, phyllite, limestone, marble, schists and quartzite. In places,
granite and granitic gneiss intrusions have led to high grade metamorphism and vertical folds.
Before Sonamarg the road also passes through Zewan Formation limestone and Panjal volcanics.
Sonamarg itself is on Triassic-Jurassic limestone.
17
Day 7 – Sonamarg and Thajiwas glacier
Walk to Thajiwas glacier, observing typical glacial features and looking at lichens as a link
between geology and ecology.
Sonamarg lies at an altitude of 2800 m on the Triassic-Jurassic limestone.
We will compare the ecology here with that seen in Srinagar in terms of plant diversity, adaptations
to the environment and pollination. We will also estimate the abundance of lichens of different
colours and see whether this is different to that at Dachigam.
Day 8 – Sonamarg to Kargil via Drass
Drive to Kargil (altitude 2676 m) via Zoji La pass (3528 m), looking at geology and ecology en
route. The geology includes highly deformed Triassic limestone, basic volcanic rocks of Panjal and
Drass and granitic rocks of Kargil igneous complex.
Today we climb up out of Triassic-Jurassic limestone, through shales onto the Salkahala Series (Zoji
La). Then into Drass volcanics, Ladakh batholith and finally Kargil Igneous Complex at Kargil (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Map showing lithographical units along the road between Sonamarg and Kargil (after
Thakur & Rawat, 1992)
18
Drass Formation
Exposed near Drass (S of Kargil) and as 15km wide outcrop in gorge between Pashkyum and Mulbek
(NE of Kargil). Intra-ocean arc sequence, 5000 m thick. Succession of volcanic rocks, and rocks
formed of pyroclasts and volcaniclastic sediments, cherts (fossil radiolarians) and limestone with
serpentinized lenses. Highly metamorphosed in western part.
Product of island arc volcanoes at subduction zone in mid to late Mesozoic (150 Ma) when India was
still part of Pangaea but the supercontinent was starting to break up. The rocks are a product of
two, separate, volcanic events.


First characterised by volcaniclastics with some slate and carbonates with rare basaltic lava
flows. Ultra-mafic rocks at base, increasingly felsic in higher layers. Intruded by gabbro, diorite
and granite.
Second (overlying this) characterised by rocks derived from volcanic ash and fragmental breccias
– volcanic-sedimentary sequence.
Around Kargil, Ladakh batholiths intrude into the Drass volcanics.
Ladakh batholith (45 – 23 Ma)
Make up large part of the Trans-Himalaya north of the ISZ. Composite granitoid mass with a wide
range of composition and texture. Intruded into the Drass volcanics during collision between Indian
and Eurasian plates. Mostly granodiorite and tonalite, with basalt xenoliths. Pale in colour, coarsegrained and quartz rich. We will take a closer look at these rocks on Day 11.
Kargil Igneous Complex
Plutonic body (granite) in the Indus Collision Zone, Lower Miocene in age (20 Ma). Three zones:



Central gabbroic zone – intrusive version of basalt
Intermediate diorite zone – more felsic version of gabbro due partial melting/fractional
crystallization
Outer tonalite-granodiorite zone – more felsic still – approaching granite
Day 9 - Kargil to Nurla
Visit the Museum of Central Asia in Kargil, then drive to Nurla via Shergol valley and the Namika
La (3718 m) and Fotu La (4108 m) passes. Visit Lamayuru monastery and view the sediments of the
now-empty Lamayuru lake (‘Moonland’). Descend to Nurla (altitude 3040 m) for overnight stay in
Apricot Tree Hotel.
Start off in Kargil Igneous complex, then travel through Drass formation with small exposures of
Shergol ophiolitic mélange and into rocks of the Lamayuru formation (Fig. 10).
19
Fig. 10. Geological map of the Indus Suture Zone between Kargil and Lamayuru after Frank et al.
(1997)
Limestone pillars line the river Wakka Chu near Mulbek (including ancient Buddha). Sediments
which line the basin of the drained lake bed are also derived from the Lamayuru formation rocks.
We join the Indus (the Indus Suture Zone) and then cross into the Indus Molasse.
Shergol ophiolitic mélange
Incorporates Jurassic-Eocene (200 - 34 Ma) submarine volcanic rocks – remnant of ocean floor as
Tethyan Ocean closed. Includes basaltic and ultra-mafic rocks of Drass volcanics plus carbonate
blocks, all mixed up.
Lamayuru Formation (250-34 Ma)
Long time span for deposition covers both opening and closing of Tethyan Ocean. Marine sequence
of dark slates and phyllites, alternating with sand and siltstones, marls and limestones. Derived from
sediments deposited on passive margin of Indian plate – shelf carbonates integrated into deep
marine succession. Fossils include ammonites and forminifera from Triassic to Early Eocene.
Indus Suture Zone
During Quarternary period (2.6 Ma to present) ISZ was particularly active. 5 km2 lake at Lamayuru
formed around 40 ka by tectonic activity damming an ancient drainage route. Rocks here are
Triassic to Jurassic marine sediments – base layer and source material for much younger lake
sediments. Paleolake deposits (110 m thick) are tilted 5-10% as result of recent tectonic
movements.
20
Lower layers of sediment are mud rich in organic material, including well preserved plant remains –
leaves, stems, twigs and seeds. Overlain by alluvial deposits of silty mud and fine sands interbedded
with marl, with deposits of poorly sorted debris on very top.
Tectonic movement also produced terraces along the Lamayuru and Indus rivers.
Indus Molasse
2000 m thick succession Sedimentary rocks – appear first just south of Kargil and form a linear belt
as far east as Upshi (east of Leh) (Fig. 11). In eastern part rests on Indus Flysch and associated
volcanic and ophiolitic mélange.
Northern belt transgresses the Ladakh batholith in places. Southern belt, called the Hemis
conglomerate is visible at Hemis monastery (see day 12 itinerary). Tectonic movement has thrust
this over the northern belt in places.
Sometimes separated into the


Kargil formation – wide range of rodent and other mammalian fossils, as well as molluscs and
fish
Indus Formation – thickly interbedded conglomerate, siltstone and shale with some thinner
layers of shale and limestone laid down in Late Eocene age (34 Ma). Upper layers sandstone and
shale with plant remains including Livistona wadiai (fossil palm). Intermontane lake sediments.
Nindam formation
Sediments of volcanic origin, mostly from Late Cretaceous-Eocene (66 -56 Ma) Dras island arc which
formed in the shrinking Tethyan Ocean before continental collision led to development of KohistanLadakh volcanic arc on the continental plate margin. Also from the ophiolitic mélange formed during
subduction and collision. Visible at Nurla and to S of Indus river. Red and green shales, siltstones,
conglomerates, cherts and limestone.
Day 10 – Nurla to Leh
Morning relaxing at Nurla (optional walk along the Indus) then drive to Leh (altitude 3524 m) after
lunch, looking at geology en route. Evening visit to Leh market and Shankar Gompa.
We drive through the Indus Molasse all the way to Leh (Fig. 11). Fig. 12 shows cross sections
through the rocks in Fig. 11 at three different positions. We will see the rocks exposed at C on Day
12 at Hemis.
21
Fig. 11. Geological map showing the Ladakh Batholith and Indus suture zone (after Sinclair
& Jaffey, 2001)
Fig. 12. Cross sections A-C through Figure 11, after Sinclair & Jaffey (2001)
22
Day 11 - Thiksey monastery and Shey palace
Get both a close up and bird's eye view of the rocks of the Ladakh Batholith on which the
monastery and palace sit. Lunch at Shey, looking at the ecology of the Indus flood plain and the
ancient lake bed.
Indus Molasse (see day 9 itinerary) lies to S of suture zone, Ladakh Batholith to N (Fig. 13). See Day 8
itinerary for a description of the Ladakh Batholith.
Indus Molasse
Ladakh Batholith
Fig. 12. Junction of the Ladakh Batholith and Indus Molasse from Thiksey monastery
Look at ecology of plants on Indus flood plain at picnic site. We will compare the ecology here with
that seen in Srinagar and Sonamarg in terms of plant diversity, adaptations to the environment and
pollination. We will also estimate the abundance of lichens of different colours and see whether this
is different to that at Dachigam and Sonamarg.
Day 12 - Visit Hemis monastery and High Altitude National Park
Both sit on the Indus Molasse. Morning visit to monastery then lunch and afternoon in Hemis
National Park to look at the high altitude vegetation and spectacular rock formations of the
surrounding peaks. Visit Karu to see the contact between the Indus Molasse and Ladakh Batholith.
Possible evening talk on Snow Leopard conservation.
23
Fig. 13. Hemis monastery sitting on the Indus conglomerates and shales
We will look at the ecology of plants around our picnic site, comparing the ecology here with that
seen in Srinagar, Sonamarg and Shey in terms of plant diversity, adaptations to the environment and
pollination. We will also estimate the abundance of lichens of different colours again.
Day 13 – Leh to Pangong Tso.
To Pangong Tso high altitude lake (4250 m) via Chang La pass (5360 m). Observe the changing
geology and glacial features displayed on descent to Pangong, as we leave behind the rocks of the
Ladakh Batholith.
Today’s route takes us right through the Ladakh Batholith (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14. Central portion of the Karakorum fault around Tangtse, after Rutter et al. (2007)
24
To reach the lake we have to cross the Chang La Pass - at 5360 m, the highest point in our entire trip
and just about at the snow line. Looking south from the pass we get another view of the Indus
Molasse beyond the Indus valley and the Zanskar range in the far distance. There will be a chance for
a quick look at the plants growing at the snow line but we will not be hanging around here for fear of
altitude sickness.
Beyond the pass, we leave the granitoids of the Ladakh Batholith behind and travel through rocks of
the Khardung volcanic complex until we reach Durbek.
Khardung Acid Volcanics (36-40 Ma)
Erupted in sub-aerial environment associated with the Ladakh island volcanic arc. Acid volcanics,
tuff and pyroclastic pumice are covered by a thick volcano-sedimentary sequence. Upper layer of
volcanics is purple to brick red rhyolites. Dacites and andesites form lower layers. Pyroclasts have
calcite and quartz-filled vesicles. Volcano-sedimentary rocks are mainly volcano conglomerate,
red/green shale, sandstone, tuffaceous chert and volcanic ash.
At Durbek we meet the Karakoram Fault and follow the eastern strand of this to Tangtse. Following
the river from here to Pangong Tso we pass over the fault zone, through spectacular mountains of
the Pangong and Karakoram metamorphic complexes and leucogranitic rocks.
In the past, Pangong Tso was much larger and deeper than it is today. Tectonic movement caused it
to partially drain and the catastrophic outwash flood created the deposits we see along the valley
sides as we approach the lake (Dortch et al., 2005).
At Pangong Tso, we will look at the ecology of the plants around lake. We will compare the ecology
here with that seen in Srinagar, Sonamarg and Shey in terms of plant diversity, adaptations to the
environment and pollination. We will also estimate the abundance of lichens of different colours.
We will collect water samples from the lake and look for planktonic life with the field microscopes.
Day 14 – Pangong to Leh
Drive back from Pangong to Leh, looking out for wildlife. Afternoon free in Leh.
Our last chance for some ecology and geology. As we return to Leh, keep your eyes open for
Himalayan marmots, Yaks and possibly Tibetan ass en-route.
25
Ecological Studies
1. Assessing plant diversity (more heterogeneous environments allow more species to coexist)
 Compare at Dachigam (1700 m), Thajiwas (2700 m), Shang Sumdo (3700 m) and Pangong
Tso (4250 m)
 Use 25 cm quadrats, count number of species present, identifying as many as possible and
classifying others more broadly (forbs, grasses, mosses, lichens and with letters)
 Make links to soil depth, moisture, structure etc
2. Adaptations to altitude
 Change in stomatal density – assess using leaf peels.
 If possible repeat on same species (or genus) at Dachigam and higher up
 Use single, youngest fully expanded leaf from each plant (handle very carefully)
 Paint portion of upper (abaxial) surface with clear nail varnish and allow to dry.
 Peel off carefully using forceps and place on microscope slide.
 Cover with clear sellotape and label with initials, species name and elevation.
 Repeat for the lower (adaxial) surface.
 Back at hotel, assess density (1 field of view is approximately 1 mm2)
3. Pollination syndromes (all tables after Teaching Issues and Experiments in Ecology, v 2)
 Compare flower visitation rates of insects to range of plants at different altitudes.
 Work in pairs/small group each with plant species from different family and chose 1m x 1m
area.
 Use Tables 1 and 2 to predict the likely pollinators and note this down.
 Count number of fully open flowers of chosen species.
 Observe for 3 x 10 minutes, with 5 minute break between. Count number of visits by each
category of visitors (Table 3)
 Also record the surface temperature of the flowers during each observation period.
 Look carefully at a few of the visitors and use a hand lens to see whether they are carrying
any pollen.
 Back at hotel, calculate mean number of visits per category of visitor per flower and we will
compare the different plant families.
4. Lichens – colour change with altitude
 Using colour cards to match and record the colour of lichens we find at different altitudes
 Small quadrats – assess percentage of each colour of lichen and compare at different
altitudes.
5. Microscopic life in Pangong Tso

We will take a look at some of the microscopic organisms to be found in this high altitude
lake.
26
Table 2. Pollination Syndromes
Vector
Wind
Flower characteristics
 Inconspicuous, green or dull colours,
petals reduced or absent, abundant
flowers, often canopy
 Dull colours, often dark red, strong odour
(spicy or rotting flesh), flat shape
 May have light window
 Often blue or yellow, with landing
platform
 Often with markings which act as nectar
guides, sometimes visible in UV spectrum
 Reduced numbers of floral parts
 Often irregular in shape
 May have deep tube or spur for nectar
Vector characteristics
 Abiotic
Moths

Butterflies






Beetles and flies
Bees




Open at dusk or night, emit sweet odour
at night
Often dull or white
Long corolla, no landing platform
Open during day, emit an odour during
day
May be blue, purple, red or yellow
May have nectar guide
Landing platform
Long, narrow corolla tube










Good sense of smell
Some lay eggs in rotting
flesh
Good sense of vision and
smell
Often have body hairs
which collect pollen
Can perceive depth and
‘count’ petals
Do not see true red but do
see UV
Most active at night
Strong sense of smell
Long proboscis to acquire
nectar
Active during day
Can see true red
Alight on blossoms
Long, thin proboscis to
acquire nectar
27
Table 3. Dichotomous key to pollination syndromes
Floral characteristics
Pollinator
1. Flowers small, inconspicuous and usually green or dull in colour,
petals reduced or absent…
Wind
Flowers inconspicuous, usually with white or coloured petals…
2. Flowers purple-brown or greenish, often with odour of rotting
fruit or meat, shallow shape…
Go to 2
Flowers with little odour or sweet odour…
3. Flowers purple-brown, sometimes with a ‘light window’…
4
Flies
Odour day or night, dull colour…
4. Flowers with deep corolla tube…
Beetle
5
Flowers more dish-shaped, nectar accessible, yellow or with
abundant pollen…
5. Corolla tube not narrow but sometimes needing forced opening,
often with nectar guides…
Bees, flies, small moths
Corolla tube or spur narrow, usually lacking nectar guide…
6. Flowers upright, with landing area…
6
Butterflies
Flowers white or pale, pendant, open or producing odour at
night…
3
Long-tongued bees
Moths
28
Table 4. Flower visitation report form
Date:
Air Temperature (C):
Time of day:
Flower temperature (C)
Pollinator
Observation 1
Location:
Cloud cover (Octas):
Observation 2
Observation 3
Altitude:
Number of flowers observed:
Mean number of pollinator
visits
Mean number of visits
per flower
Honeybees (Apis mellifera)
- golden brown, 12-15 mm
Bumblebees (Bombus sp)
- yellow and black, > 20
mm
Small bees
Flies
Butterflies
Beetles
- hard wing covers
Other
Total
29
Glossary of ecology terms (including some fossils)
The following are descriptions of some of the ecological terms used in the handbook.
Abiotic – non-living, chemical and physical, parts of the environment which affect living
organisms. Examples include temperature, wind speed, water availability etc.
Algae – a diverse group of organisms which can make their own organic material by
photosynthesis using chlorophyll but lack the distinct cell and tissue types found in land
plants. Range from single celled algae to large seaweeds. Named according to the colour of
some of the additional pigments they may, or may not, possess (e.g. red, green).
Alluvial – material deposited by running water
Angiosperms – the flowering plants. Distinguished from gymnosperms (from which their
ancestors diverged) by the fact that their seeds are produced in a fruit. First appeared
around 160 Ma and diversified rapidly.
Brachiopods – marine organisms with hard shells on the upper and lower surfaces. They
look rather like bivalves (mussels, clams etc.) but internal arrangement is different.
Chlorophyll – a group of (mostly) green pigments found in plants and algae which can
absorb and use light as a source of energy.
Corolla – the petals of a flower (used collectively). The petals are sometimes joined
together at the base to form a corolla tube.
Cyanobacteria – photosynthetic bacteria which were responsible for the production of
oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere, in the latter part of the Precambrian, which allowed life as
we know to evolve.
Cycad – seed plants belonging to the gymnosperms (seeds not enclosed in a fruit). First
appeared in Pangaea in the early Permian (280 Ma).
Dicot – the flowering plants can be divided into two groups, monocotyledons (monocots)
and dicotyledons (dicots) on the basis of the number of embryonic leaves in the seed.
Epidermis – the outer layer of cells in plant organs such as the leaf or roots. Serves to
protect the internal tissue and regulate processes such as gas exchange and the uptake of
mineral nutrients.
Foraminifers – single celled aquatic organisms, usually microscopic, with a calcite shell or
test through which projections of cytoplasm (pseudopodia) protrude.
Forb – a herbaceous flowering plant which is not grass-like.
30
Gangamopteris – a genus of plant found during the Carboniferous and Permian around 300
Ma. Characterised entirely on the basis of their leaves but assumed to be a seed fern.
Ginkgo – the Maidenhair tree is the only living example of a group known as the
Ginkgophyta, with similarities to the gymnosperms, prevalent around 270 Ma. No other
relatives have been found later than the Pliocene (3 Ma).
Glossopterids – a genus of seed ferns (gymnosperms) with tongue-shaped leaves (many
species) which were widespread throughout Gondwana before it broke up and hence were
a key part of the evidence leading to the theory of plate tectonics.
Graptolites – fossils of colonial animals found from the late Cambrian to the early
Carboniferous (500 – 350 Ma). The name comes from the fact that many resemble
hieroglyphs.
Gymnosperms – seed plants where the seed is exposed rather than developing within a
fruit, in contrast to Angiosperms. Most familiar to us are the conifers.
Invertebrates – animals without a backbone, such as insects, spiders and molluscs.
Landing platform – a part of a flower providing a flat surface on which pollinators can land.
Lichen – a mutually beneficial (symbiotic) relationship between a fungal and algal partner
which can survive very hostile conditions and so is often an early pioneer organism. The
algal partner photosynthesises and supplies carbohydrate to the fungus which, in turn,
provides protection to the alga.
Light window – translucent tissue in a flower or leaf through which light can pass.
Monocot - the flowering plants can be divided into two groups, monocotyledons
(monocots) and dicotyledons (dicots) on the basis of the number of embryonic leaves in the
seed.
Nautiloid – large group of squid-like molluscs which first appeared in the Late Cambrian
(500 Ma) – a handful of species survive today, including Nautilus.
Nectar – a sugar rich liquid produced by plants to attract pollinators. The sugar source for
honey.
Nectar guide – markings on a flower designed to lead a pollinator to the source of nectar in
a flower, picking up and/or depositing pollen on the way.
Photosynthesis – the process by which green plants use light energy and the pigment
chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
31
Plankton – microscopic organisms which float freely in water currents. Phytoplankton
(algae) can photosynthesise and are important ‘primary producers’ globally. Zooplankton
depend on the phytoplankton and organic matter in the water for their food.
Pollen – tiny grains which carry the male gametes from one plant to the one it will fertilize.
Pollination syndromes – suites of flower characteristics which have evolved to suit
particular methods of pollination (wind, insect, birds etc.)
Proboscis – tubular mouthparts of an invertebrate used for feeding and sucking
Stomata – tiny pores on the surface of leaves through which carbon dioxide is taken in for
photosynthesis and oxygen and water vapour are lost. The pore is open and shut by
changes in the size of the cells which surround it. In dry climates the pores have to remain
shut as much of the time as possible to prevent the plant from losing too much water.
Trilobite – an extinct group of very successful marine organisms with a characteristic threelobed external skeleton. They flourished for around 270 million years before disappearing
during the late Permian mass extinction.
Vascular plants – land plants with specialised tissue (a plumbing system) to conduct water,
mineral nutrients and the products of photosynthesis to where they are needed .
Vertebrates – animals with a backbone.
32
Glossary of geological terms
The following are descriptions of some of the geological terms used in the handbook. The
descriptions have mainly been adapted from: Collins Dictionary of Geology (1990) by D.F.
Lapidus, consultant editor Isobel Winstanley, Harper Collins, Glasgow. ISBN 0 00 434148 1.
Acid rocks (igneous) – containing more than 63% SiO2 as distinct from intermediate and
basic rocks.
Andesite – a fine grained, dark coloured volcanic rock the extrusive equivalent of diorite.
Basic rocks (igneous) - having a relatively low silica content, between 45 and 52%. Basic
rocks contain relatively high amounts of iron, magnesium and/or calcium.
Batholiths – large discordant plutonic mass more than 100 km2 in area and with no visible or
clearly inferred floor. Batholiths are associated with orogenic belts.
Breccias – course grained clastic rock composed of broken, angular rock fragments in a fine
grained matrix or held together by a mineral cement.
Calcareous – containing calcium carbonate. When used with a rock name, it generally
implies as much as 50% of the rock is calcium carbonate.
Carbonaceous (sedimentary) – consisting of or containing carbon, or resembling it in some
respect.
Chert – a dense, extremely hard, microcrystalline siliceous rock, consisting mainly of
interlocking quartz crystal. It occurs mainly as nodular or concretionary aggregations in
limestone and dolomite and less frequently as layered deposits. It may be an organic
deposit (radiolarian), an inorganic precipitate or a siliceous replacement of pre-existing
rocks.
Conglomerate – a course-grained clastic sedimentary rock, composed of more or less
rounded fragments or particles at least 2 mm in diameter, set in a fine grained matrix of
sand or silt and commonly cemented by calcium carbonate, silica, iron oxide or hardened
clay.
Continental crust – the crustal rocks that underlie the continents and continental shelves.
Convergent plate boundary – Three main forms: Oceanic –continental where denser
oceanic plate is subducted beneath the less dense (buoyant) continental plate. Oceanicoceanic where the densest oceanic plate is subducted beneath the lesser dense oceanic
plate. Continental – continental where collision results in under-thrusting and crustal
thickening leading to the formation of mountain ranges.
33
Crystalline – having a regular atomic or molecular structure but without developing crystal
faces.
Dacite – flow banded, often dark coloured igneous rock that is the approximate extrusive
equivalent of granodiorite or tonalite.
Extrusive rocks – rocks that result from the cooling and solidification of igneous materials
on the surface of the Earth.
Felsic – an acronym derived from feldspar and silica and rocks that contain light coloured
silicate materials such as quartz, feldspar and feldspathoids.
Flood basalts – extremely fluid basaltic lava that erupts as a serious of horizontal flows in
rapid succession (geologically). Flood basalt eruptions are associated with tensional
environments and rifting and most are related to the breakup of continents.
Flysch – a sedimentary deposit typically consisting of a thick interbedded marine shale and
greywacke sandstones, which were deposited by turbidity currents and display graded
bedding. It is thought to derive from the erosion of rapidly rising fold mountains and is itself
deformed by the later stages of the orogeny.
Fore arc basin – the region on the trench side of the volcanic arc at a convergent
(destructive) plate margin.
Gondwana – the southern supercontinent taking it name from the Gondwana system in
India, dating to the late Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic. Similar rock sequences of the same
age, containing identical fossil flora (Glossopteris) suggest an earlier connection of the
southern continents of Antarctica, Africa, South America, Australia and India. Gondwana
corresponds to the supercontinent Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere. Both landmasses
are thought to have been derived by the splitting of Pangaea.
Granodiorite – a course grained intrusive, plutonic rock composed mainly of quartz,
potassium feldspar and plagioclase. It is similar to granite except that the later contains
more alkali feldspar.
Igneous complex - A group of rocks, occurring within a comparatively small area, which
differ in type but are related by similar chemical or mineralogical peculiarities. This indicates
derivation from a common source.
Intercalations – layered material existing or introduced between layers of a different type.
Intermontane – lying or located between mountains.
Island volcanic arc - a chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate, positioned in an
arc shape as seen from above.
34
Isostasy – the condition of equilibrium whereby the Earth’s crust is buoyantly supported by
the plastic material of the mantle.
Joint - a surface fracture (vertical or horizontal) in a rock without displacement.
Leucogranitic - light coloured granitic rocks with almost no dark minerals. Leucogranite
magmas are interpreted to have been derived by melting of pelitic rocks in the upper portions of
thickened crust. These melts result following deformation and metamorphism, but the heat source is
uncertain. Shear-heating associated with large shear zones in the crust has been proposed as the
mechanism.
Lignite – brown to black coal that has formed from peat under moderate pressure. Its
texture is like woody peat and it crumbles on exposure to the atmosphere. Low calorific
value.
Loess - an unstratified, geologically recent deposit of silty or loamy material that is usually
buff or yellowish brown in colour and is chiefly deposited by the wind. Loess is a
sedimentary deposit composed largely of silt-size grains that are loosely cemented by
calcium carbonate. It is usually homogeneous and highly porous and is traversed by vertical
capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical bluffs.
Low grade metamorphic rocks – metamorphic rocks that are formed under conditions of
low to moderate temperature and pressure.
Mafic – Pertains to magnesium and iron rich minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, amphibole,
biotite etc. and the igneous rocks with a high modal content of these minerals.
Metamorphic rocks – any of a class of rocks that are the result of partial or complete
recrystallisation in the solid state of pre-existing rocks under conditions of temperature and
pressure that are significantly different from those obtaining at the surface of the Earth.
Molasse - thick association of continental and marine clastic sedimentary rocks that consists
mainly of sandstones and shales formed as shore deposits. The depositional environments
involved include beaches, lagoons, river channels, and backwater swamps. The sands are
deposited on beaches and in river channels and eventually form shoestring bodies
(thickness:width = 1:5) that are mainly calcareous or sideritic (iron carbonate-bearing)
subgraywackes and protoquartzites. The shales are deposited in the lagoons and swamps
and are mica-rich and red to gray in colour. In addition, thin beds of freshwater limestone
and coal seams may be present. The deposits show repetitive bedding, and their
characteristics stand in contradistinction to deepwater marine deposits called flysch.
Obduction – the emplacement of part of the oceanic crust onto the continental crust at a
convergent plate margin.
35
Ophiolite – a suit of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks consisting of basaltic pillow lavas,
dolerite dykes, gabbros and peridotites associated with pelagic sediments, which represent
segments of oceanic crust emplaced on the continent by plate collision (obduction).
Ophiolitic mélange - consists of a chaotic mixture of sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks
derived from the ophiolite suite of rock units.
Orogeny - the formation of mountain ranges by intense upward displacement of the earth's
crust, usually associated with folding, thrust faulting, and other compressional processes.
Pangaea – a supercontinent that existed about 300 to 200 Ma ago. This primitive land mass
included most of the continental crust of the Earth. About 320 Ma ago the protocontinents,
Gonwana and Laurasia converged to form Pangaea. It is believed that at some stage
Pangaea split into Gonwana to the south and Laurasia to the north with the Tethys
between.
Passive continental margin – the totality of the various divisions between shoreline and
abyssal ocean floor which is not affected by seismic or volcanic activity and is not a plate
boundary.
Pelitic - pertaining to or derived from pelite (a mudstone or metamorphic derivative of).
Most commonly used now for metamorphosed argillaceous (sediment composed of clay
minerals) rocks.
Plutonic body – any massive body of igneous rock formed beneath the surface of the Earth
by the consolidation of magma.
Pyroclasts – fragments of any size ejected during a volcanic event.
Rhyolite – the extrusive equivalent of granite.
Sedimentary rocks – a rock formed by the consolidation of sediment settled out of water,
ice or air. Sediments are consolidated into a rock mass by lithification.
Seismites - sedimentary beds and structures deformed by seismic shaking.
Serpentinized – late stage hydrothermal alteration of ultramafic rocks such as peridotites
commonly found in ophiolite complexes.
Shale – a fine grained sedimentary rock formed by the compaction of silt, clay, or sand that
accumulates in deltas and on lake and ocean bottoms. It is the most abundant of all
sedimentary rocks.
Silicaceous – containing abundant silica, particularly as free silica.
36
Silification – the introduction of, or replacement by, silica, particularly in the form of fine
grained quartz, chalcedony or opal, which may fill cavities and pores and replace existing
minerals. Also applies to the process of fossilisation.
Subduction zones - an extended region along which one lithospheric plate descends relative
to another and along which deep oceanic trenches occur.
Suture zone – the boundary zone between contrasting rock masses, probably extending as
deep as the mantle; the contact between continental plates that have collided.
Tethys – a sea/ocean that lay between the northern and southern continents of the Eastern
Hemisphere from the Permian to the mid-Tertiary periods. It occupies the general region
along the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt and separated Laurasia and Gonwana.
Tonalite – a Plutonic igneous rock consisting essentially of quartz and sodic plagioclase
feldspar with some mafic minerals, usually hornblend and biotite.
Thrust – a low angle reverse fault.
Trap – a dark, fine grained igneous rock such as basalt or diorite.
Tuff – pyroclastic rock composed mainly of volcanic ash.
Ultra-mafic rocks – igneous rocks containing more than 90% of mafic minerals.
Unconformity – a break in the sequence of strata in an area that represents a period of time
during which no sediment was deposited. It indicates a change in the conditions prevailing
in the area. An unconformity may be the result of uplift and erosion, an interruption in
sedimentation or non-deposition of sedimentary material. The absence of rocks normally
present in a sequence indicates a break in the geological record.
Vesicles – small cavities in an igneous rock, formed by the expansion of gas bubbles during
solidification of the rock.
Xenoliths – a foreign inclusion in an igneous rock. It may be a block of the country-rock or a
fragment of an earlier formed part of the igneous rock that has a different composition from
that of the host rock.
37
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