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Chapters 7 + 8 Timelines Chapter 7 599 – 527 563 – 483 520 327 321 – 185 321 – 297 268 – 232 182 – 1 1 – 300 78 – 103 320 – 550 Life of Vardhamma Mahavira Life of Siddhartha Gautuma, the Buddha Invasion of India by Darius of Persia Invasion of India by Alexander of Macedon Mauryan Dynasty Chandragupta Maurya Ashoka Maurya Bactrian Rule in Northern India Kushan empire in northern India and central Asia Kushan emperor Kanishka Gupta Dynasty Chapter 8 2200 – 1100 1600 – 1100 800 – 338 509 500 – 479 470 – 399 443 – 429 431 – 404 430 – 347 384 – 322 359 – 336 336 – 323 264 – 146 106 – 43 1st Cent. BC 46 – 44 31 – 14 CE 4 – Early 30s 1st Cent. CE 66 – 70 Minoan Society Mycenaean Society Era of the classical Greek polis Establishment of the Roman Republic Persian Wars Life of Socrates Pericles’ leadership in Athens Peloponnesian War Life of Plato Life of Aristotle Reign of Philip II of Macedon Reign of Alexander of Macedon Roman expansion in the Mediterranean basin Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero Civil War in Rome Rule of Gaius Julius Caesar as dictator Rule of Augustus Life of Jesus of Nazareth Life of Paul of Tarsus Jewish War Chapter 7 The Fortunes of Empire in Classical India THE MAURYAN DYNASTY AND THE TEMPORARY UNIFICATION OF INDIA - Alexander made a political vacuum in India when he came in for two years, destroyed the existing states and then left (didn’t leave a deep impression) Kingdom of Magadha: Poised to fill the vacuum ⟶ when Alexander left provided them with a big opportunity to expand; central region of the Ganges Plain ⟶ gained control of Indian Commerce passing through the Ganges Valley and that passing through the Bay of Bengal. Chandragupta Maurya: Took this opportunity ⟶ laid foundation for the Mauryan empire; centralized unified government; took control of small, remote regions then took the center; Northern India from the Indus to the Ganges Chandragupta’s Government: Advisor named Kautalya devised procedures ⟶ some of his advice survives in the Arthashastra; Used spies (including prostitutes); - Arthashastra outlined methods of administrating the empire, overseeing trade and agriculture, collecting taxes, etc.= Ashoka Maurya: Chand. abdicated throne, became a Jain monk, died from starvation; Son after him, added most of S. India ⟶ Grandson Ashoka was best – Kalinga in bloody campaign; governor more than conqueror ⟶ Tightly organized bureaucracy, central treasury, etc. ⟶ Integration of the country, roads (highway) Decline of the Mauryan Empire: Didn’t survive his rule ⟶ declined immediately after his death; Large army – large salaries, no revenue; disappeared 50 years after Ashoka’s die THE EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL KINGDOMS AND THE REVIVAL OF EUROPE Bacterian Rule in Northwest India: Regional kingdoms; conquered by the Greek-speaking Bactrian’s in 3rd century BC The Kushan Empire: Nomadic conquerors - central Asia; took out Bacteria; Kushians most successful– Kanishka; commerce between India + northern lands; silk roads ⟶ safer; Ghandra style – influential in Buddhist art; others tried to imitate Mauryas + conquer them The Gupta Dynasty: Ganges region; based in Magadha; somewhat smaller than Mauryans and a different organization – didn’t care about the day to day and even basic policy making to his admins; Chandra Gupta – founder, successors (Samudra and Chandra II) Gupta Decline: White Huns (Central Asian nomads); Repelled for 50 years as they tried to attack over the Hindu Kush Mountains, but defense cost them too much + weakened the state. Huns took over; Gupta’s name stayed the same but the rest changed (regional powers trumped imperial ones, emperors names aren’t even listed) Economic Development and Social Distinctions TOWNS AND TRADE Towns dotted the NW coast, marketplaces, roads Long-Distance Trade: Volume of these trades grew; two ways to go: Over Hindu Kush or using the silk roads to China Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin: Merchants increasingly turned to the sea for trading; Spring and summer – winds blew from SW; Winter and Fall from the NW; Tons of Roman coins discovered FAMILY LIFE AND THE CASTE SYSTEM Gender Relations: Sought to have more order through patriarchal families - well-defined roles; 2 great Indian epics – The Mahabharata and the Ramayana (portrayed women as weak-willed and emotional creatures); girls 8/9 were betrothed of to 20 year olds, married when they hit puberty Social Order: Four main castes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (peasants + merchants), and shudras (serfs) Castes and Guilds: New classes appeared and they didn’t fit (merchants, artisans, etc.), formation of guilds A.K.A. jati ⟶ had their own courts and resolved their own differences and such Wealth and the Social Order: Tremendous wealth accrued ⟶ posed threat to the social order; Brahmins and Kshatriyas bossed the lower classes around ⟶ lower classes started to get richer and more influential than the higher ranks Religions of Salvation in Classical India JAINISM AND THE CHALLENGE TO THE ESTABLISHED CULTURAL ORDER Vardhaman Mahavira: VM “the great hero” made Jainism popular; left home at age 30 to seek salvation ⟶ gained enlightenment by wondering around for 12 years; disciples called him Jina – “the conqueror”; inspired by Upanishads ⟶ everything possesses a soul Jainist Ethics: Ahimsa – nonviolence to other souls; monks went to extremes to avoid harming souls – swept ground (insects = other souls); Didn’t believe in castes – popular among the lower castes EARLY BUDDHISM Siddhartha Gautama: Came from a Kshatriya family ⟶ left everything to find salvation; lived a really sheltered life ⟶ saw old age and disease and a monk ⟶ decided to live a monk life Gautama’s Search for Enlightenment: Wandered through the Ganges ⟶ meditation then asceticism but nothing worked ⟶ sat below a large pipal (ficus religiosa) in Bodh Gaya and he sat there for 49 days (until he understood the problem of suffering) The Buddha and His Followers: Deer Park of Sarnath; Buddhist holy city of Banaras; “Turning of the Wheel of the Law” ⟶ beginning of the Buddha’s quest for the law of righteousness ⟶ organized a treaty of monks (yellow robes and begging bowls) Buddhist Doctrine: The Dharma: Four Noble Truths – all life involves suffering, desire is the cause of suffering, end of desire = end of suffering, and a disciplined life conducted in accordance with the Noble Eightfold Path brings the elimination of desire. - Eight fold path: balanced and moderate lives, rejection of luxuries. Eightfold path and the Four Noble Truths constitute the Buddhist dharma ⟶ leads to personal salvation ⟶ nirvana ⟶ no focus on castes ⟶ not as rigorous as Jainism Appeal of Buddhism: Avoided Sanskrit – used common languages; holy sites = spots for devotion ⟶ peasants flocked to tree; monastic orgs created positive vibe about the religion Ashoka’s Support: Emperor started to adopt Buddhism after the war against Kalinga ⟶ tired of the suffering or war ⟶ purely political move ⟶ built monasteries and gave Buddhists land MAHAYANA BUDDHISM - ATTRACTED MERCHANTS AND THE LOWER CLASSES ⟶ heavy demands Development of Buddhism: 3 new laws ⟶ reduced the obligations of believers, more ways to salvation, and huge boom in popularity of the religion; boddhisatva – an enlightened being who delayed enlightment so they could help others The Spread of Mahayana Buddhism: Called faith Mahayana – “greater vehicle” – could carry more people to salvation; earlier religion known as Hinayana – “lesser vehicle” Nalanda: when Monastaries were formed so were schools ⟶ Nalanda it was possible to study the Vedas and Buddhism but also other shit EMERGENCE OF POPULAR HINDUISM The Bhagavad Gita: “song of the lord”; self-contained episode of the Mahabharata – Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna a charioteer – incarnation of the god Vishnu – reluctant to fight but Krishna tells him not to worry about killing his enemies (friends and relatives) because the soul doesn’t die with the body Hindu Ethics: In the Bhagavad Gita, Hindu teachings only promised salvation to those who met their caste responsibilities and participated actively in the world. Four principals of human life: dharma (obedience to religious and moral laws), artha (pursuit of economic well-being and honest prosperity), kama (social, physical, + sexual pleasure), and moksha (salvation of the soul) Popularity of Hinduism: Gradually displaced Buddhism; Guptas advanced it Chapter 8 Early Development of Greek Society MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN SOCIETIES Knossos: Island of Crete – lavish palaces ⟶ most notable society at Knossos; Residences of rulers, storehouses of taxes Decline of Minoan Society: Series of earthquakes, tidal waves, and volcanic eruptions – after them they rebuilt the cities with more luxury; this attracted invaders Mycenaean Society: Indo-Europeans filtered into the Greek Peninsula – traded with Minoan merchants; massive stone fortresses Chaos in the Eastern Mediterranean: Mycenaeans expanded influence beyond Greece – overpowered Minoan society and took over Cretan palaces; fought with the city of Troy; The Iliad THE WORLD OF THE POLIS - polis = city-state; established when Greek societies kept failing Sparta: Fertile region – forced neighbors into performing agricultural labor – helots – not slaves, free to leave. By 6th century they outnumbered the Spartans ten to one ⟶ had to watch out for uprisings ⟶ devoted most of their resources to maintain a large, powerful army Spartan Society: Citizens were equal – austere lifestyle discouraged economic and social distinctions; Spartan = simplicity, frugality, and austerity; physical training regime for everyone; left at age 7 to train til age 20 then went to military; women trained to bear strong children Athens: Tried to negotiate order through constituents’ interests – free adult males made up the polis not foreigners, slaves, and women Athenian Society: Gap between rich and poor grew as trade increased; poor wanted to fight rich – Solon devised a solution Solon and Athenian Democracy: Forged compromise between classes – aristocrats kept land – cancelled debts, forbade slavery, liberated all enslaved due to debt; individual rights protected by law regardless of class Pericles: Democratic state – high point of this came under the leadership of the statesman Pericles – hundreds of office holders from common classes; scientists, philosophers, etc.; Pericles boasted that Athens was “the education of Greece” Greece and the Larger World - AS POLEIS GREW GREECE BECAME MORE INFLUENTIAL GREEK COLONIZATION - Political pressures arose establish colonies in other parts of the Mediterranean and the Black sea; Popular early sites – Neapolis – “New Polis” and Sicily Greek Colonies: Arose in the Eastern Mediterranean hundreds of islands in the Aegean sea 700s and 600s Greeks ventured to the Black Sea and settled along the shore; did not build a centralized imperial state but an ad hoc response of individual poleis Effects of Greek Colonization: Sponsored more communication, interaction, and exchange; colonization spread Greek language and traditions through the Mediterranean; as merchants brought wealth clan leaders built small states CONFLICT WITH PERSIA The Persian Wars: Darius repressed Ionian rebellion; 3 years later tried to punish the Athenians for helping them; the Athenians were outnumbered but they managed to push out the Persian army at Marathon and marched back to Athens in order to meet the Persian navy; no victory The Delian League: Serious conflict among the Greek poleis themselves; Alliance with Greek poleis – meant to discourage more wars with Persia The Peloponnesian War: Athens v. Sparta; Athenian bullied smaller communities – Melos stood up to them; then Athens conquered them killed the military-age men and sold women and children THE MACEDONIANS AND THE COMING OF EMPIRE The Kingdom of Macedon: Frontier state til Phillip II military machine ⟶ wanted to conquer Persia and Greece ⟶ easily got Greece Alexander of Macedon: Used conquest of Greece as launching point ⟶ assassin killed Phillip II; soon invaded Persia Alexander’s Conquests: Tried to conquer India, troops refused to proceed any farther; suddenly fell ill and died didn’t live long enough to establish an administration system THE HELLENISTIC ERA - AGE OF ALEXANDER OF HIS SUCCESSORS; THEIR INFLUENCE (HELLAS) The Hellenistic Empires: Generals divided Alexander’s kingdom into three parts after he died. Antigonus took Greece and Macedon (Antigonid), Ptolemy took Egypt (Ptolemaic dynasty), Seleucus took the largest portion, Bactria to Anatolia, The Antigonid Empire: smallest of the Hellenistic empires but benefited the most from the new order; Poleis often struck bargains with the Antigonids and offered to recognize their rule in exchange for tax cuts and local autonomy; Internal problems as well The Ptolemaic Empire: Trade networks and efficient tax collection; perhaps the wealthiest; Greek and Mecedonian overlords didn’t interfere in Egyptian society irrigation networks and monitored the cultivation of crops and the payment of taxes; monopolies over big industries such as textiles, salt making, and the brewing of beer The City of Alexandria: Much of Egypt’s wealth; admin hq enormous ports, 1200 ships early megalopolis; cultural capital of Hellenistic world; Alexander library – over 700,000 works The Seleucid Empire: Greek influence at its greatest extent – old Persian citites; assimilation in to Greek culture The Fruits of Trade: Greek Economy and Society TRADE AND THE INTEGRATION OF THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN Trade: Olives and Grapes, little grain; Trade links = large sense of Greek community The Olympic Games: 776 – Greek communities from all over the Mediterranean sent their best athletes to compete; winners got olive wreaths FAMILY AND SOCIETY Patriarchal Society: With the establishment of Poleis the nature of the Greek family came into focus; Males ruled – could decided whether they wanted to keep the babies they had, women spent their lives in the home – only position of power was a priestess of a religious cult Slavery: Mobilizing labor; different backgrounds – POWs or in debt; slave markets The Cultural Life of Classical Greece RATIONAL THOUGHT AND PHILOSOPHY Socrates: Athenian – wanted to understand humans and their complexity. Didn’t write shit down – Plato did it for him; honor was most important; need to reflect on purposes and goals of life; condemned to death because he passed the bounds of propriety – Drank a hemlock potion Plato: Series of dialouges – theory of Forms or Ideas; world we live in is not reality – a pale and imperfect reflection of the world of Forms or Ideas; The Republic Aristotle: Philosophers should rely on their sense to spread accurate knowledge – called “the master of those who know” POPULAR RELIGION AND GREEK DRAMA Deities: Most Greeks didn’t have advanced education; formless void of chaos that the world emerged out of Religious Cults: Myths sought to explain the world Tragic Drama: Poleis strengthened their grip – cults became more tame; tragedy plays – Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides; comic dramatists - Aristophanes Hellenistic Philosophy and Religion The Hellenistic Philosophers: Epicrueans, the Skeptics, and the Stoics personal tranquility and serenity. Epicureans pleasure; skeptics didn’t take strong moral positions on anything Stoics where the best – duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives in harmony with reason and nature Religions of Salvation: Trade routes- promised internal bliss; savior whose death and resurrection would lead to way to salvation Rome: From Kingdom to Republic THE ETRUSCANS AND ROME Romulus and Remus: Romulus – founder of Rome – with twin Remus; abandoned – adopted by she-wolf; scholars say it was the Indo-Europeans The Etruscans: Ran Italy between 5th + 8th centuries; thriving cities and a trading fleet The Kingdom of Rome: Monarchy; influenced by the Etruscans; city walls, paved roads; Tiber river to the Med Sea THE ROMAN REPUBLIC AND ITS CONSTITUTION Establishment of the Republic: Roman forum and constitution; ruled by noble classes; when they had crisis they’d appoint a dictator with a 6-month term Conflicts between Patricians and Plebeians: Tension between wealthy and poor; Plebians had officials tribunes THE EXPANSION OF THE REPUBLIC Expansion in the Mediterranean: Eastern Med Sea The Punic Wars: Fights with Carthage then with Antigonids and the Seleucids five major wars mainly in Macedon and Anatolia From Republic to Empire IMPERIAL EXPANSION AND DOMESTIC PROBLEMS Civil War: Enormous plantations – “latifundia”; Classes fought here Ceasar took control; centralized imperial government THE FOUNDATION OF EMPIRE Augustus: 13 more years of civil war after the death of Caesar; Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, ended the war at a naval battle in Greece defeated Marc Antony; was dubbed Augustus by the Senate Augustus’ Administration: Monarchy disguised as a republic; got vast power for himself and reorganized the military system CONTINUING EXPANSION AND INTEGRATION OF THE EMPIRE Roman Roads: pax Romana – “Roman Peace” Sea-Lanes: Mediterranean – mare nostrum – “our sea” Roman Law: Jurists actual law Economy and Society in the Romanian Mediterranean TRADE AND URBANIZATION Commercial Agriculture: Pottery, glassware, and bronze goods in Italy Mediterranean Trade: Roman power kept seas largely free – Periplus maris erythraei – “Sailing Itinerary of the Red Sea” – description of the ports by the Red Sea The City of Rome: Trade flowed to Rome Urban development Roman Cities and Their Attractions: Wealth concentrated in urban areas FAMILY AND SOCIETY IN ROMAN TIMES The Paterfamilias: “father of the family” Woman supervised domestic affairs Slavery: Spartacus slave revolt The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGIONS OF SALVATION Greek Influence: Marcus Tullius Cicero openly adopted Stoic values Religions of Salvation: From other socieites around the Med Sea – not Greece Mithraism: Divine sanction for human life Cult of Isis: Mithras didn’t admit women JUDAISM AND EARLY CHRISTIANITY The Jews and the Empire: Jesus of Nazareth: “the kingdom of God is at hand” Jesus’ Early Followers: Christ means “the anointed one” Paul of Tarsus: Observe high moral standards and place faith ahead of family and shit Early Christian Communities: Communities selected their own supervisors - bishops The Growth of Early Christianity: