Download exploring the deep

Narrative
Nonfiction
EXPLOR ING
THE DEEP
BY SUE GIBBISON
PAIRED
READ
Curious About Earth
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STRATEGIES & SKILLS
Comprehension
Vocabulary
Strategy: Reread
Skill: Main Idea and
Key Details
cascaded, documentation,
dynamic, exerts, plummeting,
pulverize, scalding, shards
Vocabulary Strategy
Content Standards
Metaphor and Simile
Science
Earth and Space Science
Word Count: 2,101**
Photography Credit: Cover Ralph White/CORBIS.
**The total word count is based on words in the running text and headings only. Numerals and words in captions,
labels, diagrams, charts, and sidebars are not included.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, network storage or transmission, or
broadcast for distance learning.
Send all inquiries to:
McGraw-Hill Education
Two Penn Plaza
New York, New York 10121
ISBN: 978-0-02-118642-6
MHID: 0-02-118642-1
Printed in the United States.
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Essential Question
How do natural forces affect Earth?
EXPLOR ING
THE DEEP
BY SUE GIBBISON
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 1
Discoveries of the Deep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Chapter 2
A Remarkable Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 3
The Missions Continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Respond to Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
PAIRED
READ
Curious About Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Focus on Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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INTRODUCTION
Imagine being in an underwater vehicle, moving slowly
through inky-black water. You don’t know what exciting
things you’ll find, or what dangers await you. This is the
experience of scientists who explore the deep ocean.
In the past 50 years, deep-ocean explorers have found a
surprising variety of marine life in these extreme conditions.
In the deep ocean, there is no light, the water is usually
freezing cold, and the pressure is immense. Scientists have
also studied the movements of the ocean floor to better
understand the dynamic forces beneath Earth’s crust.
Exploring such remote places takes skill. Scientists
also need help from miniature submarines called
human-occupied vehicles (HOVs). A key tool in undersea
exploration has been an HOV called Alvin. Since 1964, this
helped them to discover new species and study undersea
volcanoes. It has even helped them explore the underwater
wreck of the Titanic.
Ralph White/CORBIS
craft has carried scientists on more than 4,500 dives. It has
Alvin explores the
bottom of the ocean.
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EMORY KRISTOF/National Geographic Stock
Alvin is lowered into the ocean.
Alvin can travel to great depths. At such depths, the
weight of the ocean exerts huge pressure. Alvin was
designed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to
withstand this enormous pressure, which would pulverize
a regular submarine.
Alvin is transported to each mission on board the
research ship Atlantis. The ship is specially built to carry
the HOV and launch it for its dives.
The work done by scientists on Alvin has helped us
to understand the giant forces that move and shape the
surface of our planet.
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CHAPTER 1
DISCOVER IES OF THE DEEP
In 1977, Atlantis sailed on a mission. There was a team of
scientists on board—along with Alvin. The scientists’ mission
was to explore the Galapagos Rift. This is an undersea area
off the coast of South America that is volcanically active.
EXPLORING TECTONIC PLATES
Since the 1960s, scientists have been trying to learn
more about how large areas of Earth’s surface, called
tectonic plates, move. When tectonic plates move apart,
molten rock, which is very hot, is forced up into the
space. The molten rock erupts through the ocean floor.
It creates undersea mountain ranges called mid-ocean
ridges, which force the plates farther apart. This is called
Illustration: Carlos Aon
“seafloor spreading.”
Formation of Mid-ocean Ridges
continent
mid-ocean ridge
tectonic plate
continent
tectonic plate
molten rock
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The theory that Earth’s surface moves isn’t new. In 1912,
a scientist named Alfred Wegener proposed that Earth’s
continents were once joined together in a supercontinent.
He named this Pangaea (pan-JEE-uh). Over millions of
years, he said, the continents had drifted apart.
Earth’s Great Jigsaw Puzzle
Tectonic plates move and interact in different ways.
Sometimes they bump together, sometimes they drift
apart, and sometimes they slip past one another.
These movements cause earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. Some plates carry continents as well as
oceans; others carry just one or the other. For example,
the Pacific Plate is an ocean plate that carries the
Pacific Ocean.
North
American
Plate
Mountain High Maps/Digital Wisdom
Pacific
Plate
Eurasian Plate
South
American
Plate
African
Plate
Australian
Plate
Antarctic Plate
There are seven main tectonic plates.
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CLAMS AND SHIMMERING WATER
In 1977, scientists aboard Alvin were exploring what was
actually happening on the ocean floor at the Galapagos
Rift. They were interested in exploring seafloor spreading to
find out how it affects the oceans.
As Alvin reached the ocean floor, its powerful lights
lit up the scene. Scientist Jack Corliss found something
unexpected. There were hundreds of large clams on a
bare ocean floor. Corliss was surprised because he was
expecting the ocean floor to be lifeless. By radio, Corliss
told a scientist on the support boat, “There are all these
animals down here!”
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
The crew was amazed that any life could exist in such
a cold and hostile place with absolutely no sunlight.
Then, while watching crabs scuttle around, Corliss
noticed something even more unusual. He could see
shimmering water.
Alvin’s operator
collected a
sample of
the clams.
Pilot Larry Shumaker
was also stunned by
what he saw. “I felt like
Alice in Wonderland.
I remember the
shimmering water
coming from the
vents and the unusual
animals that humans
had never seen before
… At the time it was all
so weird and new.”
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THER MAL VENTS
Corliss had spotted a thermal vent. Thermal vents are
cracks in the ocean floor where heated water gushes into
the cold ocean water. Scientists had thought that thermal
vents might occur in undersea volcanic areas, but this was
the first time anyone had seen one.
So what gave scientists the idea that thermal vents
existed? Scientists thought that as the new seafloor formed
at the ridges, rocks would split. This would allow seawater
to seep into the hotter parts of Earth, where it would heat
up. The seawater would then gush back into the ocean like
hot water from a giant kettle.
Vent Formation
mid-ocean
ridge
vent
cold water
seeps into rock
crack
Illustration: Carlos Aon
tectonic
plate
plate
The discovery of thermal vents during the 1977 mission
confirmed scientists’ ideas about thermal vents that form at
mid-ocean ridges. In later missions, scientists aboard Alvin
would make even more dramatic discoveries.
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CHAPTER 2
A R EM AR K ABLE DISCOVERY
In 1979, scientists went on another Alvin mission to
explore seafloor spreading and thermal vents. Off the coast
of Mexico, the Atlantis reached its destination. Below the
ship, the seafloor rose in a gentle slope called the East
Pacific Rise. This is a mid-ocean ridge running along the
U.S Geological Survey
floor of the Pacific Ocean from California to South America.
DISCOVERING BLACK SMOKERS
The crew of Alvin came
across a peculiar sight. Peering
through their viewports, they
saw what looked like clouds
of black smoke. The clouds
gushed from the tops of
The water gushing
from a black
smoker can reach
temperatures of more
than 700 degrees
Fahrenheit.
miniature smokestacks that
seemed to be growing from
the ocean floor. In 1977, Jack
Corliss had described the
thermal vents as looking like
shimmering water. These vents
were very different and would
become known as “black
smokers.”
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Illustration: Carlos Aon
Black Smokers
Black smoker is the name given to one kind of thermal vent.
It’s a tall, cone-shaped chimney that forms on the ocean floor.
The black “smoke” that pours out is actually superheated
water that is full of dissolved minerals.
When this scalding fluid shoots out of the smoker, it hits
freezing seawater. The fluid cools instantly, and the metals
and minerals in the fluid form tiny black shards.
The chimney forms because some of these shards have
cascaded down the sides of the smoker. In this way, the
smoker’s chimney can grow up to 12 inches a day.
Scientists are interested in black smokers
because they provide information about the
processes that happen deep inside Earth. They
are also interested in studying the metals and
minerals pumped out by the vents.
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RETURNING TO THE EAST PACIFIC RISE
In 1999, Alvin returned to the East Pacific Rise to
explore the seafloor further.
After a journey of two and a half hours, Alvin
reached the ocean floor. The scientists had just
five hours to do their work before traveling back to
the surface.
Alvin was equipped to help scientists bring back
Rod Catanach KRT/Newscom
documentation of this unique and dynamic underwater
world. Cameras on Alvin’s hull took images. Its two
robotic arms gathered pieces of basalt rock and
samples of deep-sea life.
The equipment on Alvin helps
scientists view, photograph, and
collect their findings on the seafloor.
light
camera
viewport
robotic
arm
sample
basket
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Scientists also tested the
water around thermal vents
to find out what chemicals it
contained. They were especially
The black smoker
is now on display
in a museum
in Wellington,
New Zealand.
interested in the black smokers.
The area around these vents
is a unique, extreme habitat.
This is because of the heat and
the chemicals being pumped
out. Bacteria grow around the
vents. Strange and unusual
creatures, such as giant tube
worms and large clams, thrive in
this environment. Alvin gathered
samples from the vent areas so
scientists could study them later.
Once, Alvin’s crew
accidentally knocked over a
black smoker. Operated by a
scientist on Alvin, the HOV’s
robotic arm reached out and
lifted the smoker, and then
placed it carefully in the sample
basket. Only a handful of
black smokers have ever been
collected from the seafloor.
Cornel de Ronde/GNS Science
This was a great finale for the
mission.
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CHAPTER
C
CHAP
CH
APTER
APT
TER
R3
THE MISSIONS CONTINUE
A diver carries out
a final check before
the crew takes Alvin
to the ocean floor.
For more than 50 years, Alvin has played a key role in
unlocking the secrets of the deep ocean. Over time, its
design has been improved, and it has been given regular
overhauls. Almost every nut and bolt on the HOV has now
been replaced. Alvin needs to withstand the pressure of the
deep ocean, just as space shuttles need to withstand the
vacuum of outer space.
Each year, the support ship Atlantis takes Alvin to new
and already explored areas. To date, its more than 4,500
the wonders of the sunless depths. They have gathered
important information on the life there and the huge forces
that shape our planet.
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Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
dives have allowed hundreds of scientists to experience
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STUDYING LIFE AROUND THER MAL VENTS
In 1977, scientists aboard Alvin discovered the giant
clams on the ocean floor. Since then, many other diverse
forms of life have been found on and around the vents.
The hot water emerging from Earth’s mantle creates a
habitat where life thrives without sunlight.
Tube worms, giant clams, and long-necked barnacles
cluster around thermal vents. These creatures feed on the
sugars produced by bacteria that live on and around the
vents. The scientists aboard Alvin have gathered many
samples that help them understand life in this habitat.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Tube worms never leave their
shells. They live on sugar made
by the bacteria that live inside
the tube worms’ shells.
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MAKING NEW DISCOVERIES
Scientists acquire new knowledge on every mission. In
2002, Atlantis cruised with Alvin back to the Galapagos Rift.
Scientists were surprised that tectonic plate activity had
dramatically changed the seabed since their visit in 1977.
Many marine creatures had been wiped out by fresh lava
flowing from the ocean floor. In other places where there
had been little life, giant tube worms flourished around new
thermal vents.
In 2002, Alvin also explored the seafloor in the Gulf of
Alaska. Scientists took samples of the rocks from the seafloor.
Some of these samples were unusual because they didn’t
match the other rocks in the area. This was because icebergs
past, rocks that had become embedded in them many years
earlier were sent plummeting to the ocean floor.
Ralph White/CORBIS
had carried these rocks there. As the melting icebergs floated
When molten lava oozes from cracks in the
ocean floor, it mixes with the icy water to
form shapes known as pillow lava.
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In the 2002 expedition to Alaska, scientists were
exploring and mapping underwater mountains known
as seamounts. They explored a chain of seamounts that
extended from the Gulf of Alaska toward the western coast
of the United States and Canada. The largest seamount was
more than 9,900 feet tall.
To map the seamounts, scientists on Atlantis used a
sonar system and an echo sounder. The sonar system
measured the depth of the seafloor over a wide area.
The echo sounder enabled the scientists to measure the
height of the seamounts. Together, they allowed scientists
to create a 3-D map of the seafloor. Using this map,
scientists could select the areas they wished to explore
Dr Peter Etnoyer/Marine Conservation Biology Institute & National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
more closely while aboard Alvin.
Marchand
Seamount
Chirikof
Seamount
Murray
Seamount
Patton
Seamount
This computer image
shows the seamount chain
that was mapped in 2002.
KEY
High
Low
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UPGR ADING ALVIN
Alvin has had a busy life, averaging more than 180 dives
each year. It can travel to a depth of 15,000 feet, which
means it can reach and explore more than half of the ocean
floor. To get to even more of the ocean floor, scientists at
upgrade Alvin. The new Alvin will be able to dive to 20,000
feet. It will be able to reach 99 percent of the ocean floor
and remain submerged for up to 12 hours.
Over the next two decades, scientists hope to use the
new HOV to continue exploring the deep ocean. They plan
to build on the knowledge of tectonic forces and deep-sea
life that has been gathered using Alvin.
Dorling Kindersley/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution are planning to
This drawing shows
what the new Alvin
might look like.
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CONCLUSION
The exploration of the deep ocean has resulted in a
wealth of knowledge about how living things exist and
adapt in one of Earth’s most extreme environments. It has
allowed scientists to gather firsthand information about the
tectonic forces that are constantly shaping Earth.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Alvin, shown here exploring
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
continues to unlock the
secrets of the deep.
The equipment on Alvin and its support ship has helped
scientists to explore underwater mountain ranges. Scientists
have been able to document the way that Earth’s new crust
forms at mid-ocean ridges. They have also mapped much of
the ocean floor.
Alvin has enabled scientists to explore more of the
ocean floor than any other submarine. It has helped us
understand many of the natural forces that affect Earth.
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Summarize
Main Idea
Use main ideas and key details from
Detail
Exploring the Deep to summarize how
underwater volcanic activity affects
Earth. Your graphic organizer may
Detail
Detail
help you.
Text Evidence
1. What kind of informational text is Exploring the Deep?
Identify two features that tell you this. GENRE
2. On page 6, why did scientists change their ideas about
life in the deep ocean? Identify the key details that
support the main idea. MAIN IDEA AND KEY DETAILS
3. To what does the author compare a thermal vent on
page 7? How does the simile help you understand
how scientists thought thermal vents would work?
METAPHOR AND SIMILE
4. In Chapter 2, what is the main purpose of the Alvin
explorations? Write about the details that illustrate this.
WRITE ABOUT READING
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Compare Texts
Read about a scientist who studies the natural forces
that affect Earth.
Curious About Earth
Hamish Campbell is a geologist
who studies the oceans.
He decided to study geology
GNS Science Photo Library
in college because he was curious
about Earth. The first lecture he
attended, on undersea geology,
mesmerized him.
In that first lecture, the
students saw photographs of
underwater volcanoes. The
images showed lava erupting
from the seafloor. The students
were seeing pillow lava—it looked
as if the underwater volcanoes
were making a string of giant
underwater sausages. Campbell
has been hooked on geology
ever since.
Hamish Campbell
has studied the black
smoker found on Alvin’s
1999 mission.
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Later, Campbell specialized in paleontology.
Paleontologists study ancient fossils. These are the remains
of plants and animals that scientists believe to be millions of
years old!
One fascinating area of Campbell’s work focuses on
radiolarians. These are tiny marine animals. Radiolarians
survive by eating even tinier animals from the ocean.
Campbell studies their fossilized skeletons to find out what
the oceans used to be like.
Paleontologists such as Campbell can figure out the age
of fossils by identifying the layer of rock they are found in.
significantly between 230 and 260 million years ago. What
caused these changes?
Most scientists agree that a catastrophe occurred on
Earth about 250 million years ago. They know this from
studying rocks. Some scientists think a giant meteor may
have caused it.
Comstock Images/Comstock Images/Getty Images
Paleontologists have discovered that radiolarians changed
Radiolarians are so small you
need a microscope to see them.
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GNS Science Photo Library
Here, Hamish Campbell shares
his interest in deep-ocean
geology with radio listeners.
That catastrophe was the biggest mass extinction of
all time. Scientists think 90 percent of all living things on
our planet may have died. They want to know what forces
caused the mass extinction, and they’d also like to discover
how a few species managed to survive. Scientists including
Hamish Campbell are still searching for the exact rock layer
that will give them clues to what happened.
This is what makes geology so interesting for Campbell.
There’s still so much waiting to be discovered, and if
scientists can figure out what happened in the past, it will
help us understand more about forces that continue
to affect Earth.
Make Connections
Why does Hamish Campbell study natural forces?
ESSENTIAL QUESTION
How do Hamish Campbell and the crew on board
Alvin all study natural forces? TEXT TO TEXT
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Glossary
basalt (buh-SAWLT) a kind of rock formed from volcanic
eruptions (page 10)
catastrophe (kuh-TAS-truh-fee) disaster (page 20)
embedded (im-BE-duhd) fixed firmly into something
(page 14)
habitat (HA-bah-tat) a place where a plant or animal
normally lives and grows (page 11)
mantle (MAN-tuhl) the part of Earth between the crust
and the core (page 13)
molten (MOHL-tuhn) melted by heat (page 4)
overhauls (oh-vuhr-HAWLS) repairs (page 12)
paleontology (pay-lee-ahn-TAH-luh-jee) the study of
fossils (page 20)
rift (rift) a long crack or break in the land (page 4)
sonar (SOH-nahr) a system of detecting objects
underwater (page 15)
superheated (sew-puhr-HEE-tuhd) hotter than boiling
(page 9)
tectonic (tek-TAH-nik) to do with the crust of Earth
(page 4)
viewports (VYEW-ports) small windows in a ship or
submarine (page 8)
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Index
black smokers, 8, 9, 11, 19
Campbell, Hamish, 19–21
Corliss, Jack, 6
East Pacific Rise, 8, 10
Galapagos Rift, 4, 6, 14
mid-ocean ridges, 7, 8, 10, 11
Pangaea, 5
seafloor spreading, 4, 6, 10
Shumaker, Larry, 6–8
tectonic plates, 4–6, 14, 16
thermal vents, 6–9, 11, 13, 14
Wegener, Alfred, 5
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 3, 16
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Purpose To explain how a natural force affects Earth
Procedure
Step 1
Choose an example of a natural force on Earth.
Step 2
Carry out research in the library or online to gather
information about the force you’ve chosen.
Step 3
Design a poster or presentation that explains to an
audience this force and its effect on Earth. You’ll need
to consider the ages and the background knowledge of
your audience.
Step 4
Display the poster or give the presentation. Ask your
audience for feedback to ensure that they understood
how the force affects Earth.
Conclusion How did sharing information about the way a
natural force affects Earth help you to understand it better?
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Literature Circles
Nonfiction
The Topic
What is Exploring the Deep mostly about?
Text Structure
In what order does the author give us the
information in the text?
Vocabulary
What are the key words in this text that
relate to the topic?
Conclusions
What did you conclude about the forces
of nature?
What are the most important things you
learned?
Make Connections
What other books about exploration have you
read? What challenges did the explorers face?
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Program: CR 14
Component: LR
Vendor: Learning Media
Level: 60
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Dynamic Earth
Science
GR V • Benchmark 60 • Lexile TK
Grade 6 • Unit 1 Week 4
www.mheonline.com
ISBN-13 978-0-02-118642-6
MHID 0-02-118642-1
99701
EAN
9 780021 186426
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27/01/12 1:52 PM
Program: CR 14
Component: LR
Vendor: Learning Media
Level: 60
G6 U1 W4 O
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