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Contents
PREFACE xvi
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
xxi
Introduction
FAQs For Biological Anthropology 3
How Old Is the Planet and What Organisms Have Lived on It Over That Time? 3
If Life on Our Planet Has Changed So Much Over Time, What About the
Planet Itself? 6
Have Humans Changed? 6
Where Did Modern Science Come From? 7
Where Is Uzbekistan? 8
Chapter 1 Introduction to Evolutionary Fact and Theory
13
Anthropology Is the Study of Human and Nonhuman Primates 15
Anthropology Is a Scientific Discipline 16
Critical Thinking Is the Systematic Assessment of Information 16
The Scientific Method Is a Way of Testing Ideas About the World Around Us
Connections: That’s a Fact, Jack . . . Or Is It?
19
Scientific Investigation Is a Collaborative Process 21
Evolutionary Theory Is the Cornerstone of Anthropology
Evolution Is Both Fact and Theory 22
Connections: Making a Monkey Out of You?
18
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Early Explanations of Life Were Both Philosophical and Religious 23
The Scientific Revolution Opened the Door to Systematic Study of the World 25
Evolutionary Thought Emerged From Scientific Collaboration 26
Charles Darwin Proposed Natural Selection as the Mechanism of Evolution 31
Connections: Can You Understand Evolution and Be Religious?
What We Know/Questions That Remain
Summary 40
Critical Thinking 41
Resources 42
References 43
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Chapter 2 Basics of Human Biology
45
The Place of Human Beings in Nature
Where Do Humans Fit In? 47
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Connections: Why Do Monkeys Look Like Little People and
Our Dogs Understand Us? 47
How Are Relationships Among Organisms Determined?
Human Morphology: The Body’s Form and Structure 49
Tissues Cover Us and Bind Us Together 49
The Skele n: Our Basic Form 50
The Musculature Interacts With the Skeleton 55
Connections: My Bones Ache…
48
55
All Mammals Share Common Skeletal Structures 55
Human Physiology: The Systems of the Body 57
The Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Transport Nutrients and More 57
The Nervous System and Brain Control the Actions of the Body and Assess the
Organism’s Surroundings 58
The Endocrine System Regulates and Communicates Hormonal Information
Throughout the Body 60
The Digestive System Processes Nutrients 61
The Reproductive System Enables Us to Produce Offspring 62
Connections: Whoa, Where Did That Come From? The Fascinating
Development of Human Genitals 64
All of These Systems (and More) Are Interconnected
What We Know/Questions That Remain 65
Summary 66
Critical Thinking 66
Resources 67
Chapter 3 Introduction to Genetics and Genomics
64
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Heredity Is the Passing of Genetic Information From Generation to Generation
Connections: “Gene”—What Is In a Word?
71
DNA Is the Molecule of Heredity 72
DNA Is Found in Cells 72
DNA Has a Specific Structure 73
DNA Has Three Main Functions 74
Connections: Why It Is Important to Understand What DNA Does
Mendel’s Basic Model of Inheritance 82
Traits Are Passed From Generation to Generation 82
Mendel’s Work Continues to Inform Current Knowledge 84
The Relationship Between Genes and Traits Is Complex 85
Four Ways Genes Produce Traits 86
Are There Specific Genes for Certain Diseases? 87
Most DNA Doesn’t Appear to Do Anything! 87
Does DNA Cause Certain Behaviors? 88
Connections: My Genes Made Me Do It!
88
Population Genetics Helps Us Understand Evolution
What We Know/Questions That Remain 90
Summary 91
Critical Thinking 91
Resources 92
References 93
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Chapter 4 Modern Evolutionary Theory
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Evolutionary Change Occurs In Populations In Four Ways 96
Mutations Are Changes in the DNA 98
Gene Flow Is the Movement of Alleles Within and Between
Populations 99
Genetic Drift Is a Change in Allele Frequency Across Generations Due
to Random Factors 100
Current Concepts of Natural Selection Involve an Understanding
of Genetics 101
Connections: Survival of the Fittest? Not Really
104
The Four Core Processes Do Not Explain All Change 105
Speciation Is the Process by Which New Species Arise 108
Species Can Be Defined in Many Ways 108
Connections: Species, Schmeecies . . . I Know One When
I See It and So Do They 109
Subspecies Are Divisions Within a Species 110
Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium:
Different Paces of Change 111
Similarities Can Result From Either Parallel or Convergent Evolution 112
Biodiversity in Evolution: Why We Should Care About Biological Variation 113
Connections: Why Conserve Stuff Anyway?
What We Know/Questions That Remain
Summary 115
Critical Thinking 116
Resources 117
References 117
Chapter 5 Primate Behavioral Ecology
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Comparative Primatology Provides Insights Into Modern Human Behavior
The Living Primates Are Widespread and Diverse 120
Comparing the Primates Helps Us Understand Behavior 127
Connections: Monkey See, Monkey Do, and Humans Too?
120
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To Study Behavior, We Have to Measure It 129
Specific Methodologies Are Used to Measure Primate Behavior 129
A Behavior Can Be Viewed From Five Perspectives 130
Behavior and Genetics Are Interconnected 131
Behavioral Ecology Provides the Basis for Evolutionary
Investigations of Behavior 132
Socioecological Pressures Affect Organisms in Five Areas 132
Success of a Behavioral Adaptation Is Measured in Terms of Energy Costs
and Benefits 133
Reality Is More Complex Than Suggested by Cost-Benefit Analyses 135
Connections: Are All Men Jerks?
136
General Behavior Patterns in the Living Primates 137
Mother-Infant Bonds Are the Core of Primate Societies 137
There Are a Few Primary Grouping Patterns in Primates 138
Affiliation and Grooming Are Important in Primate Societies 138
Hierarchies and Dominance Help Structure Primate Societies 139
Contents
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Dispersal and Life History Patterns Are Important to Social Behavior 140
Cooperation and Conflict Are Integral to Primate Societies 141
Social Organization in Two Nonhuman Primate Societies:
Macaques and Chimpanzees 141
Macaques: A Widespread Primate Genus 141
Chimpanzees: Our Closest Relatives 146
Humans Are Also Primates, and Human Behavior Has an Evolutionary History 151
Social Organization and Behavior in Humans 152
Comparisons With Macaques 152
Comparisons With Chimpanzees 153
What Is Uniquely Human? 154
Connections: Why We Never Shut Up
154
What We Know/Questions That Remain 155
Conserving the Nonhuman Primates Is a Critical Challenge
Summary 156
Critical Thinking 157
Resources 158
References 158
Chapter 6 Early Primate Evolution
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Fossils Provide Direct Evidence of an Organism’s Existence 162
Humans Are Members of the Order of Mammals Called Primates
A Very Brief History of the Mammals 165
Connections: Homiothermy is Cool!
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Primates Are Mammals With Specific Characteristics 167
The Fossil Primates 168
The Earliest Possible Primates Are Found in the Paleocene 168
Why Did Primates Evolve Out of Early Mammalian Groups? 170
True Primates Appear in the Eocene 171
Anthropoids (Simiiformes) Radiate in the Oligocene 173
Connections: Why Care About 30-Million-Year-Old Dead Primates?
Hominoid Primates Radiate During the Miocene
Connections: Ok, So Is Gigantopithecus Bigfoot?
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Nonhominoid Anthropoid Primates Radiate During the Pliocene and
Pleistocene 182
Evolutionary Relationships Among These Fossil Primates Are
a Matter of Debate 182
What We Know/Questions That Remain 184
Summary 184
Critical Thinking 185
Resources 185
References 186
Chapter 7 Early Hominin Evolution
189
Connections: Why Walking on Two Legs Makes Birth Painful for Mom
Classification of Hominids/Hominins Is a Subject of Debate
Early Hominins Evolved Primarily in East Africa 195
Early Possible Hominins 196
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Hominins of the Middle and Late Pliocene Were Bipedal and
Sexually Dimorphic 200
Connections: Big Guys With Small Teeth Rock!
203
Were There Early Hominins in Southern Africa? 205
Evolutionary Relationships Are Unclear 205
Fossils Give Us Clues About Early Hominin Behavior 206
Habitat: Where They Lived 207
Diet: What Did They Eat, and How Did They Get It? 207
Tools: Did They Use Bone, Wood, or Stone Tools? 207
Social Life: How Did They Live Together? 208
The Bipedalism That Wasn’t 208
Connections: Hyenas, Wolves, and Saber-Toothed Cats, Oh My!
The Evolution of Bipedality Has Several Possible Explanations
What We Know/Questions That Remain 211
Summary 212
Critical Thinking 213
Resources 213
References 214
209
Chapter 8 Plio-Pleistocene Hominins and the Genus Homo
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Changes at the Late Pliocene-Pleistocene Boundary 219
The Robust Hominins Had Unique Cranial and Dental Anatomy 220
The Genus Paranthropus: Hominins With Massive Chewing Adaptations 220
Robust Hominin Behavior 225
The Gracile Hominins Shared Characteristics With Both Earlier and Later Groups 226
Genus Australopithecus: Three Plio-Pleistocene Forms 226
Are These Australopithecines Ancestral to Humans? 230
Early Homo: A New Genus Emerges 231
Connections: Where Is the Missing Link?
232
Gracile Hominin Behavior and the Advent of Biocultural Evolution
The Genus Homo Diversifies: The First Humans 237
A Classification Debate: One Genus but How Many Species? 238
Physical Characteristics of H. erectus 240
Geographic Distribution of H. erectus 241
Connections: Is that You Frodo? Ardi?
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When Did Hominins Expand Beyond Africa? 245
Why Did Hominins Expand Beyond Africa? 246
H. erectus Material Culture and the Expansion of the Biocultural Evolution 246
Connections: What’s the Deal With Fire?
What We Know/Questions That Remain
Summary 252
Critical Thinking 253
Resources 253
References 254
Chapter 9 The Rise of Modern Humans
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Archaic Homo Sapiens and the Changing Speed of Innovation 259
The Oldest Archaic Human Fossils Are Found in Africa 259
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Archaic Human Fossils Are Found Across Eurasia 261
Archaic Humans Are Found in China but Not in Southeast Asia
Is Homo heidelbergensis a True Species? 264
The Neanderthals Were Not as Different as First Thought, but
They Were Different 264
Connections: I’m no Neanderthal!
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Material Culture of the Archaic Humans 267
Increased Complexity in Tool Use and Hunting 267
Dietary and Behavior Changes Associated With New Tool Kits 268
Social Patterns: High Levels of Communal Cooperation 269
Postmortem Modification of Bodies 270
Why Did the Neanderthals Disappear? 270
The Appearance of “Anatomically Modern” Homo sapiens 272
Anatomically Modern Humans Are Defined Morphologically, Not Behaviorally 272
The Earliest Anatomically Modern Fossils Are Found in Africa 273
The Eurasian Record Demonstrates the Spread of Modern Humans 274
Material Culture Becomes Very Complex With the Appearance
of Modern Humans 277
Blades and Associated Industries Revolutionized the Human Tool Kit 277
Changing Technologies and Behavioral Patterns Affected Diet 279
Modern Humans Used Art and Symbols 279
Connections: Art for Art’s Sake?
281
Burial of the Dead Was Ubiquitous and Postmortem Modification Common 282
Connections: Why We Love Our Dogs (At Least Some of Us Do)
Current Human Patterns Began to Emerge 20,000 Years Ago 283
The Origin of Modern Humans Is a Matter of Debate 283
The Case for a Recent African Origin 284
The Case for Multiregional Evolution 287
The Case for Multiple Dispersals 288
As Usual, Reality Is Not This Clear 289
What We Know/Questions That Remain 290
These Models Influence the Way We Think About Human Differences
Summary 291
Critical Thinking 292
Resources 293
References 293
Chapter 10 Human Biological Diversity in Context
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A Basic Summary of Human Evolution: The Origin of Behavioral and
Biological Diversity 299
Humans Have Long Exhibited Biological Diversity 300
A Visible but Misunderstood Variation: Skin “Color” 301
Connections: Everyone Tans! But Skin Color is Still Culturally Defined
Another Visible Difference: Body Shape and Size 305
A Cornerstone of Variation Research: Skull Morphology
Connections: Skulls Are Us?
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Sex Differences Are Seen in the Skeletal and Soft Tissue of Humans 309
The Impact of Disease Environments: Variation in the Human Immune System 311
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Blood Groups Vary Within and Across Populations 312
Most Genetic Variation Is Found Within Populations 314
Human Biological Diversity Is Best Explained Using a Biocultural Approach 315
Natural Selection and Human Cultural Behavior 316
Examples of Selection and Adaptation in Human Variation 317
Race Is A Very Poor Way to Describe Variation In Homo Sapiens Sapiens 321
What Is the Evidence Regarding Biological Races in Humans? 322
Connections: Is High Blood Pressure a Black Thing?
324
There Is a Scientific Study of Human Biological Variation 325
Why Does the Notion of Biological Race Persist? 326
A Very Brief History of Racism 326
Modern Notions Are Also Due to a Lack of Context 328
What We Know/Questions That Remain 331
Summary 332
Critical Thinking 332
Resources 333
References 334
Chapter 11 The Present and Future of Human Evolution
337
How Do We Study Human Behavioral Evolution? 338
Sociobiology 338
Human Behavioral Ecology (HBE) 339
Evolutionary Psychology (EP) 339
Dual-Inheritance Theory (DIT) 340
Biocultural Approaches to Studying Modern Humans 341
A Modern Approach to Studying the Evolution (Past and Future)
of Human Behavior 341
Humans Are Still Evolving 343
Diseases and Modern Humans 343
Connections: Can Evolutionary Perspectives Be Applied to
Modern Medicine? 346
Cultural Patterns Influence Morphology 348
Culture, Evolution, and the Future: Where Are We Headed? 352
Human Densities and Global Population Are Dramatically Different Today
Genetic Manipulation Can Influence Our Evolution 356
Connections: Where Is That Banana From?
357
Some of Our Behavior Reflects Adaptations 357
Understanding Biological Anthropology and Understanding Ourselves
What We Know/Questions That Remain 359
Summary 359
Critical Thinking 360
Resources 360
References 361
CREDITS
358
362
GLOSSARY
INDEX
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Contents
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