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The Most Common Language Problems in Technical Papers PROBLEM 1. Poor paragraph organization 2. Awkward sentences 3. Incomplete sentences 4. Inflated sentences 5/2/2017-9:55 PM CURE Think of the paragraph as a mini-composition. The lead sentence introduces the paragraph topic and the last sentence presents the major point or conclusion. Each intermediate sentence develops the topic and follows logically from preceding sentences. No one sentence paragraphs. As a guideline, 5-7 sentences usually enable good paragraph development. Use natural form of verb (not “measurements were made of the voltage” – instead “the voltage was measured”). Mostly use natural English word order: subject, verb, object: not “When x>r, this relationship is valid.“ but rather “This relationship is valid when x>r.”) Focus on the main thought. Put secondary information in dependent clauses and avoid long introductory clauses. (Not “Using a CSEM model 3400 nano-indenter equipped with a flashlight and a microcomputer, the hardness of the coating was measured” but rather “Coating hardness was measured using a CSEM model 3400 nano-indenter equipped with a flashlight and a microcomputer.” Don’t underestimate the value of editing your own writing. Read and reread to consider if each sentence clearly and logically contributes to the development of the paper. Is the meaning clear? Is the sentence grammatically correct? Is your writing sufficiently concise? Could a word or phrase be simplified? A sentence must express a complete thought and will normally have a subject/verb pair. For example, instead of “Which can reduce micro-grid’s dependence of RC from external grid.” write The optimization power distribution method can reduce the dependence of the micro-grid on reserve capacity.” Avoid wordy phrases that mean little [e.g. by means of, despite the fact that, for the purpose of, in the final analysis]. Be selective in using adjectives and adverbs. Let the reader draw the conclusion that your results are very important or remarkable. Avoid saying the same thing twice. Process is a much overused word and should not be combined with another word that itself defines a process. For example, deposition is a process, and thus deposition process is redundant. Look for phrases that can be shortened and simplified. D:\840966201.doc -1- 5. Imprecision 6. Improper choice of definite and indefinite articles, generic nouns 5/2/2017-9:55 PM For example, consider whether there are or it is are needed. Vary short and long sentences within the paragraph. Shorter sentences often work well to introduce the main topic and draw the reader into its development. Longer sentences may be necessary to express complex ideas. Following a complex sentence with one or more short and simple ones is kind to the reader. As you write and revise, consider what words you can eliminate without changing the sense of the sentence. If there are such words, hit the delete key State exactly how many items rather than indicating several and note exact time intervals rather than writing frequently or often Use the same terms consistently. Use parallel grammatical forms for similar phrases within a sentence or group of sentences. Use “Thin film properties can be improved by incorporating alloying elements, annealing, and accelerating incident ions.” rather than “Thin film properties can be improved by incorporation of alloying elements, annealing, and the use of accelerated ions.” If the noun is both singular and countable, the indefinite article a or an is used. The indefinite article is only used with singular nouns, never with plural nouns. For example: A particular shape may be desired for a given application. The output of the excited was connected to the input of a linear power amplifier The text electrodes were submerged in a Galvanic cell. If the noun is plural and countable, the definite article the is used. For example: The popular and universally used coating systems. The desired properties. If the noun is uncountable or generic (does not refer to a specific member of a class), no article is used. For example, Physical vapor deposition is increasingly used for hard film fabrication to improve wear behavior or corrosion resistance. The choice of a or an depends on the sound of the first letter in the word following. If the sound is a vowel, an is used, if a consonant a. Sound, not spelling, is the determining factor, so we write an MRI scan because the initial sound is em. The definite article may be used with singular or plural nouns, whether countable or not, when referring to assumed or old information or when the specific meaning is clarified immediately thereafter in the D:\840966201.doc -2- sentence. In scientific writing, the indefinite article, or no article (with a generic term) is used the first time a new term is introduced and then the definite article the is used in every subsequent mention of the term. The definite article the is used to point to old information, and tells the reader that this term is old information. Examples: Ion bombardment usually requires the use of an ion source. The source may be of several designs, including the Kaufmann source, and the dualplasmatron. An was used to introduce the ion source. The was used to refer to the source in the second sentence because the reader already knows about the ion source from the previous sentence. Note that the noun ion was used as part of the compound noun ion source in the first sentence, and thus served to modify or describe the word source. Ion was dropped in the repetition, since the reader already knows what source is being described from the previous sentence. If no other sources are used in the paper, after the first description of the source, the modifier ion should not be repeated. This makes the writing terser, and less confusing. If an ion source was again to appear later in the paper, the reader would be wondering if there were some other source whose mention he missed. The definite article may also point forward to specific information which follows immediately, e.g. The code generated by Harrison’s algorithm has a lower bit error rate than conventional encryption methods. Here the specification of the code (generated by Harrison’s algorithm) closely follows The code. However, the definite article may be used on first mention if the part is obviously known (i.e. it is part of the knowledge that the reader may be assumed to share) – e.g. The anode was water cooled, and constructed from OFHC copper. 7. Using plural nouns as adjectives 8. Overcomplicated verb tenses 5/2/2017-9:55 PM Use only the singular form of a noun as an ‘adjective’ in ‘compound nouns’: velocity distribution, not velocities distribution. There are many verb tenses in English but most scientific writers use few of them and they probably should use even fewer. It is rarely preferable to use a more complex construction when a simpler one would do. Most sentences should be in the simple past or present tense. Of the various tenses which make finer gradations of when something happened, the present perfect is most useful. It indicates that something D:\840966201.doc -3- 9. Inappropriate comparisons happened and is or may be continuing to happen. Modal auxiliary forms are suitable when there is some degree of speculation involved Adjectives and adverbs are used more sparsely in scientific writing than in general literature and quantitative measures are more common than qualitative descriptions. However, qualitative comparisons are common and may be coupled for emphasis with quantitative comparisons. The comparative (inflected suffixes –er, or –ier when a 2 or more syllable adjective ends in y) is used for comparing two things and the superlative (-est or iest or most) for comparing three or more things. The word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative, e.g. Aluminum is a strong material. However, titanium is stronger than aluminum. Among the materials tested, the titanium based super alloy was the strongest. When using a comparative adjective, the basis of comparison must be clear to the reader, either from context, or by providing the comparison with a than statement. The anodic reaction was fast. However, the cathodic reaction was faster. [the basis of comparison for the comparative faster is clear in the context of the first sentence] The cathodic reaction was faster than the anodic reaction. The Cu-Al alloy was stronger than the Cu-Sn alloy. [the basis of comparison is specified by the than phrase] Be careful not to use more along with a comparative adjective formed with -er nor to use most along with a superlative adjective formed with -est (e.g., do not write that something is more heavier or most heaviest). And avoid forming comparatives or superlatives of adjectives which already express an extreme of comparison —for instance- absolute, sufficient, unavoidable, unique, universal. When comparing between quantities, fewer is generally used for things that are countable while less is used for measurable, non-countable quantities. In the second case there were fewer excited atoms [countable] and their energy [measurable] was less. Less is also used for mathematical expressions in the sense of minus, e.g. The cooling system must remove all of the combustion power, less the power delivered to the drive train. Adverbs modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. They often indicate when, where, why or under what conditions something happens. Adverbs frequently end in –ly (e.g. deliberately, dramatically, exactly, hourly, occasionally, quickly, perfectly, powerfully, rapidly, rarely, regularly, safely, sharply, slowly, technically); 5/2/2017-9:55 PM D:\840966201.doc -4- however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly are adverbs (e.g. always, often, seldom, sometimes, very, well) and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb (e.g. costly, early, only, orderly, smelly, unlikely – all of which are adjectives). Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree. More and most or less and least are used to show degree with adverbs. 10. Misused prepositions 11. Inconsistent use of abbreviations and acronyms 12. Incorrect capitalization Usually intuitive for the native English speaker, speakers of English as a second language will find it helpful to notice preposition use in similar papers in their field. Even so, they typically require correction by a native speaker. See attached table for examples of scientific use. Spell out the full phrase represented by abbreviations and acronyms at first use and specify in parenthesis the short form you will be using throughout the paper. Thereafter use the abbreviation or acronym consistently. Keep in mind that an international journal audience may not be familiar with all abbreviated terms that are in common use in your country Words that are capitalized in English include; The first word of a sentence. Proper nouns - names of specific people, places, and things. The main words in titles of books, articles, research papers, chapters and sections but not articles, prepositions and conjunctions unless they are the first word of the title. The first word in bullet lists is capitalized unless each item in the list is only a few words. The pronoun I is always capitalized. When an adjective owes its origins to a proper noun, is normally capitalized. Thus we write about Cartesian coordinates, Ohmic heating, Galilean relativity. Common nouns are words for a general class of people, places, things, and ideas (scientist, engineer, laboratory, experiment). They are only capitalized if they are the first word in the sentence or if they are part of a title. They are never capitalized to emphasize their importance within the sentence. 5/2/2017-9:55 PM D:\840966201.doc -5-