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Chapter I INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES 1.1 INTRODUCTION The Arthropoda, which includes insects, spiders, mites, and their relatives, is without question the most successful group of organisms on the planet. Insects alone account for nearly 55% of all species known to science (Barrowclough, 1992; Schauff, 2004). Insects comprise the largest group of organisms and are involved in various vital „ecosystem services‟ such as pollination, decomposition, herbivory and biological control as well as contributing directly to human-based economies through silk, lac and honey production (silkworm, lac insects and honey bee). India is one among the twelve mega bio-diversity countries of the world and we also realize that 80% of the insects are endemic in India (Murugan, 2006). In the class Insecta, the Lepidoptera fall within the division of endopterygota (=Holometabola). The adult bears two pairs of membranous wings, usually clothed on both surfaces with overlapping scales. The mouthparts of the adult are frequently modified into a long coiled proboscis, which occurs in no other order. Lepidoptera pass through a complex metamorphosis of egg, larva and pupa to adult. The Lepidoptera, in common with all other insects, have the soft parts of the body held inside a hard exoskeleton composed of a substance known as chitin. This chitinous exoskeleton, together with the spiracular system of respiration, imposes certain limits on the development of the group. The respiratory system, depending as it does on the flow of air through the spiracles and trachea throughout the body, has limited the size to which insect can develop (Barlow, 1982). The total number of known species of Lepidoptera makes up about 10% of total animal kingdom and is roughly equivalent to the number of flowering plants species known (Srivastava, 2002). Lepidoptera is the second largest order of class insecta and most fascinating group. The present total number of Lepidopteran species approaches near 2,00,000 most of which are moths (Heterocera) and only about 15,000 are butterflies (Rhopolcera) (Hampson, 1891). Order Lepidoptera comprises Butterflies, Moths and Skippers, which are well known to every observer in nature, of which the butterflies have been thoroughly studied by many researchers 1 and still more research is coming through. In spite of the fact that moths outnumber butterflies, not much has been worked on them. Whatever information is available is only on those, which affect crops, or those, which yield silk. On controversy among all insects moths are mostly known for there diversity of shapes, size and colour patterns. The word Lepidoptera means scaly winged. The most characteristic feature is layer of short, flattened hairs or scales that covers both surface of wings and partially on all other parts of body. Moths can be differentiated from Butterflies due to there nocturnal activity, presence of pectinate, bipectinate, lamellate and filiform antennae and possession of unique spine like structure supporting their hind wings. Moth included over 55 different families (Hampson, 1891). A larva of moth feeds upon the leaves, soft stem of plants. Although many Lepidoptera are valued for their beauty and a few are useful in pollination, commerce such as silkworm, as the sericulture industries which are totally depends upon the products of moth (i.e. cocoon formed during pupal stage). But majority of moths are probably more destructive to trees, crops, fruits and store grains in the larval stage than other group of insects. However, many species of moth have turned declining partially due to human activity and use of insecticides and pesticides by farmers. Biodiversity is one of the important cornerstones of sustainable development and represents the biological wealth of a given Nation. The world is currently facing its greatest ever biodiversity crisis. Insects and plants are becoming extinct because of habitat loss, over-exploitation, pollution, overpopulation and the threat of global climatic changes (Murugan, 2006). 1.2 MOTHS AS A STUDY GROUP Lepidoptera is a group of insects that contains many large and showy species. Among these, butterflies have received much attention from the average layperson due to their diurnal activity and colourful wing patterns. Consequently the conservation of butterflies is much better than any other group of insects (Wang & Fang, 2007). 1.2.1 MOTHS – A DIVERSE FAUNA Insects and other animals often live in more or less specialised niches. Increased specialisation enables a species to adapt very efficient exploit, a small 2 niche. On the other hand, the advantage of being a generalist is that a much larger population may be maintained through the use of a wide variety of resources. Specialists may be less vulnerable to predation and generalists less vulnerable to extinction. So, in stable habitats many moths will become much specialised (Zborowski & Edwards, 2007). Small animals can inhibit very small niches than large ones; as the complexity of an ecosystem increases there will be more and more different small niches form of those will be quite rare in occurrence. The larval stages of moths successfully occupy a wide array of small niches (Kendrick, 2002). Insects particularly the moths have taken advantage of vast number of rare small niches and this is the reason for such huge diversity. Recent estimates reveal the report of over 127,000 species of moths from the world, of which over 12,000 species are recorded from India (Chandra, 2007). 789 moth species have been recorded from Maharashtra state, principally from Pune, Satara, Mumbai & Khandala (Cotes & Swinhoe, 1887-89). 1.2.2 ECOLOGY OF MOTH Moths are an integral part of most of the ecosystem (Srivastava, 2002). They are also monitored to indicate climatic changes and environmental degradation. Thus like other animals, moths are now studied as living ecological components. Most species of moths consume plant material, both living and decaying, in all manner of ways – (Stem borer) eating inside stem, eating flowers, fruit, roots, bark, leaves (Friedrich, 1986; Porter, 1997; Robinson, et al. 2001; Kendrick, 2002; Sharma, & Ramamurthy, 2010). Some species known to feed on forms of keratin such as animal fur (Robinson, 1990; Gerard, 2002), and a few species are parasitic or predatory (Kato, 1940; Montgomery, 1982). This ability to utilize a wide variety of food sources has allowed moths to survive in virtually every habitat on Earth (Kendrick, 2002). As many species of moths known to be pest of forest, agricultural crops and grass fields reasonably detailed studies of pest species are necessary if they are to be controlled efficiently. The more that is known about the diversity, ecology and biology of a pest then more options available for their control methods that do not involve synthetic chemical, can be more precisely targeted to a particular pest, and are more eco-friendly. Such studies require biological research on the pest and also require research enabling a particular pest to be distinguished reliably from other pests and innocuous species. The most serious moth pests of crops are two very 3 similar species of Helicoverpa (Noctuidae); methods found in the 1950s to distinguish these and similar species still underpin all research into the control of these moths (Zborowski & Edwards, 2007). Even where insecticides are used that may be effective against two very similar pests, insecticidal resistance will develop independently in each and there will also be differences in biology. 1.2.3 ROLE OF TAXONOMY IN CONSERVATION OF MOTH In conservation it is also important to accurately distinguish species. An endangered or threatened species can only be listed if it is clearly distinguished from other very similar species. Knowing what moths contributes and what they do is important in understanding the natural functions of moths in ecosystems, for example, pollination, nutrient recycling, food for other organisms, and control of leaf litter and plants (Zborowski & Edwards, 2007). Night-blooming flowers usually depend on moths or bats for pollination, and artificial lighting can draw moths away from the flowers, affecting the plant‟s ability to reproduce. Taxonomic study on moths is essential to have a single internationally agreed name for each moth. The system that we use is the closest thing to an international language. A name is essential without it no knowledge can be accumulated or communicated about moths. 1.2.4 PHOTO-TACTIC BEHAVIOR The attraction of many insects to light is a well-known phenomenon. The physiological reasons for this is still not fully understood, but traditionally various theories involving the dazzle effect of light were proposed. Accordingly, most of the moths are attracted to light at night in the near ultraviolet range of wavelength 360 nanometres, which is just beyond the range of human vision. According to astronomers there is very little ultraviolet light available at night, yet moths can still detect this (Zborowski & Edwards, 2007). It has been shown that moths are strongly attracted to a point source of light than to a panel of same luminosity. Possibly moths may also orient on the horizon when in flight, at least in open situations except for the face of moon, the brightest part of the night sky is said to be just above the horizon and if this is true in ultraviolet then moths could orient themselves by viewing the ultraviolet light just above the horizon. 4 Though light trapping does not attract all the nocturnal moth species but this method frequently used to sample data of relative abundance and distribution of moths using UV emitting light sources such as mercury vapour and actinic lamps (Waring, 1994, Young, 1997; Leverton, 2001). The method has drawbacks that many species are not consistently attracted to UV light (Hsiao, 1972; Mikkola, 1972; Waring, 1994). The more powerful mercury vapour lamps catch a much larger and richer sample, while the actinic lights have a more effective catch in a small area, especially for Geometridae (Walker & Galbraith, 1979). Lunar cycles also have significant effect on attraction of moth towards light as there is less number of moth catches in bright moon light as compare to moonless nights gives good number of catch (Siddorn & Brown, 1971; Bowden, 1973; Bowden & Church, 1973; Persson, 1976; Frank, 1988; Waring 1990, 1994). 1.3 SEASONALITY Occurance and population of any living organism has greatly influenced by environment that includes biotic and abiotic factors; i.e composition of flora and fauna determined by climatic conditions (Beeson, 1941). Climate and weather conditons directctly or indirectly affect the abundance of insect species in particular area. Climatic factors such as rainfall, snowfall, temperature, humidity; wind flow and sun light are influences flora of that area which determines insect seasonality and abundance. Although all these factors work together; it may show primary effects on insect seasonality individually. The action of temperature is persistently modified by the relative atmospheric humidity at the instant and changes in these two factors often occur in opposite directions. As air temperature rises, its humidity increases. Very high air-temperatures may be accompanied by extreme dryness or by saturation, but air at low temperature to which insects are ordinarily exposed is moist. Rainfall is responsible for decreasing atmospheric temperature and raising humidity. Moth species richness in India is related to high rainfall that has enormous diversity; while low rainfall and dry areas comparatively has low diversity with less species number (Scott, 1983). According to Bell & Scott (1937), the abundance or rarity of individuals is very variable. Individuals of some species are always common, of others always rare. A usually uncommon species may appear in great numbers in certain seasons, or may be locally abundant in a part of its range. 5 1.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The moth fauna of India is poorly known. Prior to this study there has been only few survey have carried out before 20th century in British administration especially in Maharashtra state. Fabricius and Cramer initiated studies on Indian Lepidoptera in 1775 (Hampson, 1892). Frederick Moore brought out a magnificent publication Lepidoptera of Ceylon in 1890-92, covering both the Moths and Butterflies of Sri Lanka and the first volume of Lepidoptera Indica was published in 1890. Both these publication are till date among the finest and most comprehensive works on Lepidoptera. The moths of Bombay, Poona and other localities in western India have been largely worked by Col. C. Swinhoe in 1885 that has made very large Indian collection. The moth fauna of Nilgiris was studied by G. F. Hampson in 1891 who contributes his work to the fauna of British India and recorded about 611 species of moths particularly from Maharashtra. Moore in 1867 published the lepidopteron insects of Bengal in the proceeding of Zoological Society of London. Leech J. H. in 1937 also made the large collection of moths from Kashmir; he also contributes to Japanese and Chinese collection (Hampson, 1892). The moths of North West Himalaya were collected by the Rev. J. H. Hocking in 1890 which is now in the British museum (Hampson, 1892). In Assam and Burma region the fine collections made by W. Doherty in 1969 upper Assam; the Naga hills and they presented their collection to British museum (Hampson, 1892). The moths of Dharmashala and Meean meer, Punjab, Nilgiris are reported by Hampson in 1895. The moths found in Raipur and Bombay is reported by Swinch. Gardner in 1941 reported immature stages of Indian lepidopteron Noctuidae, Hyspiridae to Indian forest research entomology. South-East Asia is one of the rich biodiversity areas on the earth; more than 6000 Micro-Lepidoptera species are known (Robinson, et al. 1994). Moths of Borneo series in 18 parts published by Holloway, J.D., includes 3629 species covering the area of 743,330 sq. km. Srivastava, in 2002 studied Noctuid moths from Himachal Pradesh and published a book „Taxonomy of moths in India‟. The moths from sanjay Gandhi National park, Boriwali, Mumbai were studied by Vaylure Subhalaxmi in 2003. Ghosh in 2003 studied the Geometrid moths of Sikkim and reported 525 species, wherein record of 460 and 260 species of Geometrid moth from Meghalaya and West Bengal respectively was mentioned. Mathew et al. in 2004 catalogued 202 species of butterflies and moths from shendurny wildlife sanctuary, Kerala. 6 Rose & Pooni (2004, 2005) recorded 18 species belonging superfamily Pterophoroidea and 16 species belongs to superfamily Tortricoidea from North western part of India. Chandra in 2007 studied moth diversity of Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh 142 species of moths from 90 genera and 16 families. Gurule et al. in 2010 cataloged 70 species of moths of family Noctuidae from Nashik district of Maharashtra. Sidhu et al. in 2010 documented 109 species micro lepidopteran moths from family Pterophoridae in online version of Zoological Survey of India. 1.5 OBJECTIVES Review of literature reveals that study on diversity of moths from North Maharashtra is not yet done so far. Whatever work carried out on diversity of moth in Maharashtra was done before 1950 so; it is need of time to carry out such kind of research work for this area. Present work is undertaken to know the taxonomic status of moths from North Maharashtra. Site survey (North Maharashtra) undertaken as need for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or to prevent the destruction of sites threatened by smaller developments. Aims and Objectives: 1. Find out the patterns of biodiversity of moths for study area by extensive survey and taxonomic study; it will form catalogue of moths for the first time. 2. Seasonal patterns with the abundance and species richness is studied using diversity indices by statistical application. 3. To establish a foundation for research on moths and provide a scientific data to forest dept. & wildlife for evaluating the threatened and endangered species values for their conservation in future. To reach at aim the study was conducted during the more than three years period from February 2009 to January 2012. More efforts have been taken for precise identification of the collected voucher moth specimens. No attempt was made to describe the seasonality of individual species, as the objective was to evaluate the general seasonality of moths in the area. 7