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Chapter Seven Learning: The Role of Experience Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Learning Learning: a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behavior or capabilities Four basic learning processes: Habituation Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 2 Learning Behaviorism: Assumes that there are laws of learning that apply to virtually all organisms Learning is explained in terms of directly observable events Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 3 Adapting to the Environment Personal adaptation: focuses on how an organism’s behavior changes in response to environmental stimuli Habituation: a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 4 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning: a process in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli One stimulus elicits a response that originally was elicited only by the other stimulus Process was discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying the salivation response in dogs Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 5 Classical Conditioning Acquisition: the period during which a response is being learned Neutral stimulus: a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response in an organism Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 6 Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): elicits an innate response (the UCR) without prior learning Unconditioned response (UCR): an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 7 Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 8 Classical Conditioning Conditioned response (CR): a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus Conditioning typically occurs over the course of many pairings, but it can happen in a single trial in certain cases Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 9 Classical Conditioning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 10 Classical Conditioning Forward short-delay pairing: CS appears first and is still present when the UCS appears Forward trace pairing: the CS appears and then disappears, and then the UCS is presented 2-3 seconds later Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 11 Classical Conditioning Simultaneous pairing: the CS and the UCS are presented at the same time Backward pairing: the CS is presented after the UCS Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 12 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is strongest when: There are repeated CS-UCS pairings The UCS is more intense The sequence involves forward pairing The time interval between the CS and UCS is short Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 13 Classical Conditioning Extinction: the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 14 Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR Example: salivation may be elicited by a bell or a piano tone Discrimination: a CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not others Example: salivation may not be elicited by a whistle Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 15 Classical Conditioning Higher-order conditioning: occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS Produces a CR that is weaker and extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 16 Classical Conditioning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 17 Classical Conditioning Acquiring and overcoming fear: John B. Watson conditioned an 11-month-old boy, Albert, to be afraid of white rats Unconditioned stimulus: loud noises Fear generalized to other white, furry objects Albert was never “fixed” Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 18 Classical Conditioning Behavioral therapies based on classical conditioning are very effective for treating phobias Exposure therapies: a patient is exposed to a stimulus (CS) that arouses an anxiety response without the presence of a UCS, allowing extinction to occur Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 19 Classical Conditioning Systematic desensitization: patients learn muscle-relaxation techniques and then are gradually exposed to fear-provoking stimuli Aversion therapy: conditions an aversion to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behavior by pairing it with a noxious UCS Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 20 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is often used by advertisers to influence our attitudes toward products Allergic reactions: classical conditioning can be used to elicit an allergic reaction to a previously neutral stimulus Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 21 Classical Conditioning Anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV): developed by many chemotherapy patients in anticipation of a treatment session Immune system can be classically conditioned, affecting susceptibility to disease and fatal illness Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 22 Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Instrumental learning: the process by which animals utilize trial and error to achieve a desired outcome Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 23 Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect: A response followed by a satisfying consequence will be more likely to occur A response followed by an annoying consequence will become less likely to occur Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 24 Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning: behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it Skinner Box: a special chamber used to study operant conditioning Box contains a lever on one wall A food pellet is released when the lever is pressed Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 25 Operant Conditioning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 26 Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it Reinforcer: the outcome (a stimulus or event) that increases the frequency of a response Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 27 Operant Conditioning Punishment: a response is weakened by an outcome that follows it Punisher: a consequence that weakens (decreases) the frequency of a response Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 28 Operant Conditioning Skinner’s analysis of operant behavior: A: antecedents of behavior B: behaviors C: consequences that follow behavior IF A is present AND B is emitted THEN C will occur Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 29 Operant Conditioning Distinguishing operant from classical conditioning: Classical: Behavior changes are due to the association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR) Focuses on elicited behaviors Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 30 Operant Conditioning Distinguishing operant from classical conditioning: Operant: Behavior changes as the result of the consequences that follow it (reinforcement or punishment) Focuses on emitted behaviors Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 31 Operant Conditioning Discriminative stimulus: a signal that a particular response will now produce certain consequences Example: a light in the Skinner Box may indicate whether or not food will be dispensed when the lever is pressed Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 32 Operant Conditioning Positive reinforcement: occurs when a response is strengthened by the presentation of a stimulus Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 33 Operant Conditioning Primary reinforcers: stimuli that are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers: stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 34 Operant Conditioning Negative reinforcement: occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus Negative reinforcer: the aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 35 Operant Conditioning “Positive” and “negative” refer to presentation or removal of a stimulus, not “good” and “bad” Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 36 Operant Conditioning Operant extinction: the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced Resistance to extinction: the degree to which nonreinforced responses persist Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 37 Operant Conditioning Aversive / positive punishment: occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus Negative punishment / response cost: occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 38 Operant Conditioning Problems with punishment: Suppresses behavior; does not provide an acceptable alternative May arouse negative emotions Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 39 Operant Conditioning Effective punishment: Must occur after every transgression Must be immediate Must be intense Must not be signaled by discriminative stimulus Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 40 Operant Conditioning Shaping: reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response Chaining: develops a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 41 Operant Conditioning Operant generalization: an operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus or situation that is similar to the original one Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 42 Operant Conditioning Operant discrimination: an operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another Stimulus control: a behavior that is influenced by discriminative stimuli Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 43 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: every response of a particular type is reinforced Example: a rat receives food every time a lever is pressed Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 44 Schedules of Reinforcement Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: only a portion of the responses of a particular type are reinforced Example: a slot machine Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 45 Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedule: a certain percentage of responses are reinforced Example: 50% of the rat’s lever presses are reinforced with food Based on number of responses Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 46 Schedules of Reinforcement Interval schedule: a certain amount of time must elapse between reinforcements, regardless of how many responses occur Based on the passage of time Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 47 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses or after a fixed time interval Variable schedule: the required number of responses or the time interval varies at random around an average Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 48 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 49 Schedules of Reinforcement Variable ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centered around an average Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 50 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed interval schedule: the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval is reinforced Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 51 Schedules of Reinforcement Variable interval schedule: reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a variable time interval, centered around an average Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 52 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement produces more rapid learning than partial reinforcement The association between a behavior and its consequences is easier to understand Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 53 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuously reinforced responses extinguish more rapidly than partially reinforced responses The shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 54 Escape and Avoidance Escape conditioning: the organism learns a response to terminate an aversive stimulus Acquired and maintained through negative reinforcement Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 55 Escape and Avoidance Avoidance conditioning: the organism learns a response to avoid an aversive stimulus Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 56 Escape and Avoidance Two-factor theory of avoidance learning: both classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning 5 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 57 Operant Conditioning Applications for education and workplace: Teaching machines (Skinner) and computer- assisted instruction Immediate performance feedback Self-paced learning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 58 Operant Conditioning Applications for education and workplace: Token economies: desirable behaviors are quickly reinforced with tokens that are later turned in for other reinforcers Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 59 Operant Conditioning Applications for specialized animal training: Assist people with disabilities Police / Military training Entertainment industry Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 60 Operant Conditioning Applications for modifying problem behaviors: Applied behavior analysis: combines a behavioral approach with the scientific method to solve individual and societal problems Designs and implements a program of change Collects data on the program’s effectiveness Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 61 Operant Conditioning Applications for modifying problem behaviors: Behavior modification: procedures used to change behavior Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 62 Using Operant Principles Modifying behavior: Specify the problem Collect baseline data Identify the antecedents and consequences Develop a plan to modify the antecedents and consequences Implement the program and measure progress Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 63 Crossroads of Conditioning Biological constraints: Preparedness: through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily than others Behaviors related to a species’ survival are learned more easily Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 64 Crossroads of Conditioning Conditioned taste aversion: a conditioned response in which the taste, sight, and/or smell of a particular food becomes disgusting and repulsive Conditioned taste aversions and conditioned fear are both influenced by biological preparedness Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 65 Crossroads of Conditioning Garcia & Koelling, 1966: When paired with nausea, sweet water easily became a CS (but lights and sounds did not) When paired with electric shock, lights and sounds easily became a CS (but sweet water did not) Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 66 Crossroads of Conditioning Biological preparedness in humans: Seligman (1971): humans are biologically prepared to acquire certain fears more readily than others Easier to condition a fear of snakes and spiders than a fear of flowers Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 67 Crossroads of Conditioning Instinctive drift: the tendency for a conditioned response to drift back toward instinctive behavior Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 68 Cognition and Conditioning S-R (stimulus-response) psychology: learning involves the relatively automatic formation of bonds between a stimulus and a response Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 69 Cognition and Conditioning S-O-R (cognitive) model of learning: the organism’s cognitive representation of the world (O) falls between the stimulus and the response Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 70 Cognition and Conditioning Insight: the sudden perception of a useful relationship that helps to solve a problem Challenges ideas about trial-and-error learning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 71 Cognition and Conditioning Cognitive map: a mental representation of a spatial layout Suggests that learning provides knowledge and an expectation of “what leads to what” Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 72 Cognition and Conditioning Expectancy model: the most important factor in classical conditioning is how well the CS predicts (signals) the appearance of the UCS Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 73 Cognition and Conditioning The role of awareness: Organisms develop an awareness of the relations between their responses and the probable consequences The best predictor of behavior is the perceived contingency between stimulus and response Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 74 Cognition and Conditioning Latent learning: learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until later, when there is an incentive to perform 7 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 75 Observational Learning Observational learning: occurs by observing the behavior of a model Modeling: humans’ capacity to learn by observation Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 76 Observational Learning Social-cognitive theory: people learn by observing the behavior of models and acquiring the belief that they can produce behaviors to influence the events in their lives Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 77 Observational Learning The modeling process: Attention: we must pay attention to the model’s behavior Retention: we must retain that information in memory so that it can be recalled when needed Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 78 Observational Learning The modeling process: Reproduction: we must be physically capable of reproducing the model’s behavior Motivation: we must be motivated to display the behavior Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 79 Observational Learning Self-efficacy: people’s belief that they have the capability to perform behaviors that will produce a desired outcome Bandura’s (1965) “Bobo Doll” experiment Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 80 Observational Learning Viewing media violence: Decreases viewers’ concerns about the suffering of victims Habituates us to the sight of violence Provides aggressive models Viewing prosocial behavior enhances people’s helping behavior Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 81 Observational Learning Applications of observational learning: Learning academic and sports-related skills Enhancing prosocial behavior Addressing global social problems (literacy, AIDS) Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 82 The Adaptive Brain Learning involves multiple brain regions and neural circuits Hypothalamus and dopamine pathways regulate our ability to experience reward Cerebellum plays a role in acquiring classically conditioned movements Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 83 The Adaptive Brain Learning involves multiple brain regions and neural circuits Amygdala plays a role in acquiring conditioned fears Frontal lobes become less involved as we gain experience at novel tasks Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 84 The Adaptive Brain Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 85