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WEEK 12: Social and Behavioral Socialization Outcomes Key Point Summary -How do children learn how to treat one another? -Do different cultures have an varying concepts of “goodness”? -Why do some people lie, cheat, steal, or kill? -Why are some people altruistic or self-sacrificing? -Is the “hero role” just for boys, or can girls assume it too? -Who was your hero and why? I. Self-Regulation/Behavior A. Self-regulation, or self-control, refers to the ability to regulate or control one’s impulses, behavior, and/or emotions until an appropriate time, place, or object is available for expression. B. Can be observed in children beginning about age two and increasing with age. C. Self-regulation is a continuous process, an outcome of affective, cognitive, and social forces. -How important is predictability to trust? How important is trust to “self-regulation” or delayed gratification? D. A component of self-regulation is emotional regulation, including the ability to control anger and exhibit empathy. 1. Antiscocial behavior refers to any behavior that harms other people, such as aggression, violence, and crime. 2. Prosocial behavior refers to any behavior that benefits other people, such as altruism, sharing, and cooperation. -What early experiences might have influenced the “good Samaritan” behavior? -What early experience might have contributed to the “thieves” behavior? -Should a 3-year-old be force to share? -Compare the “self-regulation” of the various characters in the parable. E. Antisocial Behavior: Aggression 1. Existing theories explaining the causes of aggression fall into four general categories: a. Biological theories i. Evolution (Freud, Lorenz) ii. Genetics iii. Neuroscience b. Social cognitive theories i. Learning Theory ii. Information Processing Theory c. Sociocultural theories i. Peers ii. Community d. Ecological theories F. Prosocial Behavior: Altruism 1. Prosocial responses become increasingly apparent throughout children as children develop cognitively and have more social interactions. 2. Existing theories explaining the causes of altruistic behavior fall into five general categories: a. Biological theories b. Social cognitive theories i. Learning theory ii. Instruction iii. Learning by Doing c. Cognitive developmental theories i. Perspective-taking ii. Moral Reasoning d. Social interaction theories i. Communication ii. Parenting style e. Sociocultural theories II. Morals A. Morals encompass an individual’s evaluation of what is right and wrong. B. Morality involves feeling, reasoning, and behaving. C. Moral development 1. One’s moral code develops through social interaction and reflects one’s ability to distinguish and act on right and wrong. 2. Piaget’s theory of moral development a. Heteronomous morality refers to Piaget’s stage of moral development in which children think of rules as moral absolutes that cannot be changed. b. Autonomous morality refers to Piaget’s stage of moral development in which children realize that rules are arbitrary agreements that can be changed by those who have to follow them. 3. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development a. Preconventional level refers to the first of Kohlberg’s stages in which the individual considers and weighs the personal consequences of behavior. b. Conventional level refers to the middle of Kohlberg’s stages in which the individual can look beyond personal consequences and consider others’ perspectives. c. Postconventional level refers to the last of Kohlberg’s stages in which the individual considers and weighs the values behind various consequences from various points of view. 4. View on Kohlberg’s theory a. Kohlberg’s work has been criticized i. Moral reasoning and moral behavior ii. Interviewing technique iii. Cultural bias iv. Gender bias 5. Gilligan’s perspective i. Justice moral perspective refers to a perspective which emphasizes the rights of the individual; when individuals conflict, equitable rules of justice must prevail. Kohlberg’s theory b. Care moral perspective views people in terms of their connectedness with others; others’ welfare is intrinsically connected to one’s own. D. Influences on Moral Development 1. Situational contexts a. The situation an individual is in often influences actual moral behavior. b. Cognitive factors involve the judgment of the situation, age of the child, and cultural orientation. 2. Individual contexts a. Temperament b. Self-control c. Self-esteem d. Intelligence and Education e. Social interaction f. Emotions 3. Socialization Contexts a. Family b. Peers c. School d. Mass Media e. Community – Several researchers believe that one’s moral code develops through social interaction (discussion, debate, and emergence of consensus) – Does that make it “situational ethics?” III. Gender Roles A. A gender role refers to the qualities an individual understands to characterize males and females in his or her culture. 1. Gender role is more of a psychological construct, whereas sex is a physical construct. B. Development of Gender Roles 1. Sex typing refers to classification into gender roles based on biological sex. a. Begins at birth 2. Theories of gender role development a. Consensus that biological, cognitive and social factors interactively contribute to sex-typed behavior. b. Psychoanalytical theory (Freud) i. How one comes to feel like a male or female c. Social cognitive theory (Mischel, Bandura) i. How one come to behave as a male or female d. Cognitive-developmental theory (Kohlberg) i. How one comes to reason about oneself as a male or female e. Gender schema theory (Bem, Martin, Halverson) i. How one comes to process information about oneself as a male or female by perceiving and interpreting gender-linked information Theories of Gender Role Development C. Influences on the development of gender roles 1. Family a. Mothers and fathers interact with sons and daughters differently. b. Fathers are the more influential gender-role socialization agent. 2. 3. 4. 5. c. individual differences in sex typing are influenced by parental involvement, maternal work status, and sex typing of parental roles within the home Peers a. Begin to exert their influence during early childhood. b. Peers tend to reinforce gender stereotyping and to encourage sex segregation that leads to boys and girls growing up in different peer environments. School a. Schools provide a number of gender-related messages to children, some intentional and some unintentional. b. Men are disproportionately represented in positions of power and administration, whereas women are often teachers, particularly in the early grades. c. Teachers respond to boys and girls differently at every level of schooling. d. School-research has found that teachers treat boys and girls differently Community a. The community influences gender-role development through its attitudes regarding what is appropriate behavior for males and females and the gender role models it provides with whom children can identify. b. Culture and religious orientation influence children’s perceptions and expectations for gender. Mass media a. Mass media affect gender-role development by the way the appearance and behavior of male and female characters are portrayed, as well as by the advertising messages. b. Print media influence gender-role socialization by the way in which males and females are stereotyped. c. Stereotypes about men and women’s behavior are visible in rock music videos. d. Gender preferences in video games reinforce stereotypical behavior. e. tends to portray gender stereotyped behaviors and expectations