Download Terra Preta Program - Camara Forestal de Bolivia

Terra Preta Program
- Grants available for obtaining PhD degree in the NetherlandsThe program Terra Preta do Indio ─ Recovering the Past, Regaining the Future of
Amazonian Dark Earths is now recruiting doctoral students who will work in an
interdisciplinary research team in Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia. This program is being
implemented by Wageningen University (the Netherlands) in collaboration with several
Latin-American organizations. The main partner organizations are EMBRAPA- Amazonia
Occidental and EMBRAPA Solos in Brazil, the Instituto Boliviano de Investigación Forestal
in Bolivia, and the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Colombia.
How to apply
Application materials should be sent digitally to [email protected] until June 13th, 2010.
The applications will be reviewed by an international and interdisciplinary team. Top
candidates will be interviewed around end of June.
Applicants must be citizens of Bolivia, Brazil or Colombia to apply. Applicants should send
all the documents requested in Application material. Successful applicants should have a MSc
degree in a discipline of relevance to the research topic selected and should fulfill the English
proficiency level required.
Program description
Anthropogenic soils with high fertility in the Amazon (Terra Preta; also known as
Amazonian Dark Earth) challenge conventional theories on environmental limitation in the
Amazonian basin. These improved soils (and their co-evolved crops) offer a major inspiration
for (re-)creating soils for sustainable agriculture. This program aims to (1) understand
conditions under which Terra Preta originated, both from the biophysical and socio-economic
side; (2) understand the institutional and policy dimensions related to actual use and potential
future use of such fertile soils, including the creation of new soils; (3) link actual perception
and use of these soils for various agricultural purposes, ranging from annual and biannual
cropping systems to (agro-)forestry), to biophysical properties and socio-economic conditions
(markets); (4) contribute to the creation of soils that allow sustainable and productive
agriculture in the Amazon, using the functioning of Terra Preta as a source of inspiration; (5)
contribute to and maintain the functioning of a network of Latin American Terra Preta
researchers; (6) use the conceptualization of Terra Preta as socially constructed soils to reflect
on (and change) actual scientific discourses and practices, both in research and education.
Research topics
To achieve the aims of the program nine research topics have been defined. One of them will
be carried out in Bolivia, six in Brazil and two in Colombia. More information in List of
research topics.
The PhD program at Wageningen University
Selected doctoral students will be enrolled at the PhD program of Wageningen University and
will be affiliated to one local institution. Students will receive a four-year grant, will spend
18 months in the Netherlands and 30 months in the study country. Students will be
supervised by both Dutch and local supervisors. The students will work together and with
other members of the program through conferences, workshops and courses. See PhD
program and description of grants for more detailed information.
Questions?
Please contact the Terra Preta program coordinators: Dr. Thom Kuyper ([email protected])
or Dr. Marielos Peña-Claros ([email protected]).
Application material
Interested students should send the following material to [email protected] before June
13th, 2010. Please take into account that a MSc degree in relevant field is required.
1.
CV including personal information (name, date and place of birth), education (degree
obtained, years, average grade), research experience, working experience (positions
held), grants received, memberships, list of publications, and computer skills.
2.
Two references of academic advisors or professional supervisors who are familiar with
the applicant, his/her work or studies. Provide detailed contact information of references
(address, phone, e-mail account).
3.
Motivation letter written in English (2 single-spaced pages maximum). The letter
should include the following information:
- Indicate the research topic/s of interest and explain why you are interested in
that/those specific research topic/s. PLEASE take into account that you need to be
citizen of the country where the selected research topic will take place;
- Mention your past experience with research in general, and with multidisciplinary
research in specific if applicable;
- Mention your motivation for participating in a interdisciplinary research program;
- Mention why do you want to obtain a PhD degree in general and in Wageningen
University in particular;
- Additional information you consider relevant for your application
4. Proficiency in the English language. Wageningen University has strict rules regarding
the English level required for becoming accepted in the graduate schools (see table
below “WUR requirements”). Successful candidates will be required to achieve the
WUR required English level during their stay in the Netherlands. Students not
achieving the required levels will not be allowed to continue their studies.
Consequently, only candidates with at least the scores provided in the table below
(see column “minimum requirements of Terra Preta Program”) will be considered
during the selection process. Candidates should have a similar grade in each section
of the test (a minimum of 19-20 points for the TOEFFL internet). Other candidates
will not be considered during the selection process because experience has shown that
if the English level is too low, students can not fulfill the requirement in the time
given to do so.
Type of exam
WUR requirements
for being accepted at
graduate schools
Minimum requirements of
Terra Preta Program (to be
used for the selection process)
IELTS
6.5 (all parts min. 6.0)
6.0
TOEFL written (max 677)
580
550
TOEFL computer
237
213
TOEFL internet (max 120)
92-93
79
List of research topics
Below are listed the nine research topics of the Terra Preta Program. The research topics are
organized per country (Bolivia: 1 study, Colombia: 2 studies, Brazil: 6 studies).
1. Terra Preta, forest composition and forest dynamics
Country: Bolivia
Forests in the Amazon area have often been considered as pristine, but many of these forests
are less than a few hundred years old and bear traces of former human interventions. The
human legacy can be seen in both the soils (Terra Preta) and in the vegetation (enrichment
with fruit-bearing and other useful species such as palms for housing). This legacy has most
likely resulted in different forest composition, structure and dynamics which are caused by
and feed back to soil properties. Understanding these feedbacks will determine management
and use potential of such forests. In this project we aim to (1) establish soil maps to correlate
forest properties with soil properties, with special emphasis on effects of Terra Preta on water
availability; (2) test for differential abundance and population structure in Terra Preta and
non-Terra Preta sites for 20-40 tree species that are known to have been used or cultivated by
the Amerindians; (3) test for differential abundance of light-demanding tree species at both
sites as a basis for improved forestry practices; (4) unravel the mechanisms through
greenhouse experiments to determine which factors of soil improvement are most important
for future forest management practices; (5) use models to assess future uses of these forests
under different forms of management on Terra Preta and non-Terra Preta sites; (6) relate
general theories of maintenance of species richness to human interventions in soils and
vegetation (intermediate disturbance hypothesis; paradox of enrichment, Grime’s humped
back model).
2. Farmers’ perception and actual use of the fertility of Terra Preta
Country: Colombia
The process of transforming inherently infertile soils into highly productive Terra Preta by
pre-Columbian civilizations has been linked with technological innovations resulting from
increasing population pressure but also with nomadic patterns. These innovations were
escorted by complex management systems of soils and plant resources (natural forest, agroforest, agro-ecosystems) in such a way that a sustainable increase in soil fertility was achieved.
Given that such natural-cultural resources are maintained under agricultural use, and given
that such practices further inspire the creation of novel fertile soils that allow sustainable and
productive agriculture (Terra Preta Nova), the current use of Terra Preta soils needs to be
better understood. Understanding farmers’ perceptions of soil fertility and their designs of
cropping systems on such soils illustrates the importance of local construction of knowledge
and practices, allows us to disentangle the impact of ‘good soils’ versus ‘good farmers’,
which can be used for the design of future systems. More specifically the project aims at (1)
analyzing farmers’ knowledge of soils and how this knowledge is turned into practices; (2)
assessing the relationship between these local knowledge forms and larger myths and
cosmologies; (3) surveying and determining farmers’ livelihoods in relation to their
knowledge of these soils, their actual cropping and weed management practices, and vicinity
of markets; (4) exploring and developing potential future soil and crop management strategies
as part of more encompassing livelihood strategies to mitigate possible constraints; (5)
analysing the compatibility of these scenarios with both farmers’ livelihood strategies and
national policies in order to determine the acceptability for various stakeholders.
3. Institutional and policy aspects of Terra Preta (Nova) production, use and
management
Country: Colombia (possibly also Brazil)
The use of commonly-owned natural resources does not always lead to a Tragedy of the
Commons. Often such use is guided by various institutions that enable certain uses and
prevent the full depletion of the resource. Both informal local institutions as well as formal
juridical-bureaucratic ones play a role when traditional rules and modern bureaucracies
interact. Institutions do not always prevent resource depletion, particularly when mixed rule
systems create insecurity, unclear situations and misuse. Economic growth, illegal activities
and/or population pressure may also go beyond the regulatory power of given institutions.
This project aims at increasing our understanding of these institutions, their evolution and
present functioning. The relation between institutional diversity and the cultural diversity of
Amazonia will be studied. The project addresses the following research questions: (1) what
law and regulations concerning production, use and management of Terra Preta (soils and the
trees / crops growing on them) are currently in use, and how do these affect local practices
and interact with local institutions?; (2) which local level solutions have been developed for
Terra Preta production, use and management in the countries and localities concerned out of
formal-bureaucratic and informal-local institutions?; (3) to what extent have these institutions
changed over time and why?; (4) what claims are being laid on Terra Preta by different
stakeholders – scientific institutions, the state, businesses, ethnic groups – regarding
ownership, access, use, management and benefit sharing?; (5) to what extent do Terra Preta
institutions and stakeholder claims coincide or clash?; (6) to what extent do different existing
types of institutional framework contribute to the preservation and/or improvement of Terra
Preta (Nova) production, use and management for future generations?
4. The creation of Terra Preta Nova
Country: Brazil
In Amazonia, anthropogenic soils with high fertility (Terra Preta, Terra Mulata) are of
widespread occurrence. These soils are partly used for agricultural purposes. The use of these
soils is subject to competing claims as they are partly used for agricultural purposes but they
are also part of the archaeological heritage of the countries. It may, therefore, be important to
create and speed up the rate of creation of similar soils, inspired by our knowledge of Terra
Preta. This project aims to (1) classify input sources (char quality) and evaluate the char
products obtained by different processes for their physico-chemical properties and biological
effects; (2) evaluate the most promising products (in combination with mineral fertilizers) in
terms of nutrient balances and crop productivity; (3) estimate rates of new formation; (4) look
at options and constraints from the biophysical and socio-economic side. Together with
project #5 the project will assess potential trade offs between increased agricultural
sustainability and productivity and carbon sequestration, and link these data in a decision
model that could affect policy makers and institutional discourses when scaling up local Terra
Preta Nova projects. Together with project #5 it provides a framework for further questions
such as: To whom would benefits (agricultural production, carbon sequestration) accrue?
Who would decide about quantities and rates of charcoal addition to such soils? Who decides
in cases here is a trade off between soils as carbon sinks and Terra Preta Nova soils as sources
for sustainable agriculture?
5. Assessing the impact of Terra Preta Nova on carbon budgets
Country: Brazil
Terra Preta soils contain much higher amounts of carbon that other soils in the Amazon
region and contribute thereby to carbon sequestration. The suggestion has been made to
recreate such soils (Terra Preta Nova) where carbon sequestration can be combined with
agricultural sustainability. However, little is known about the sources of carbon that could
enter the pyrolysis chain and end up as biochar. Which products and what amounts of
potential biochar sources can be produced locally, regionally and nationally? What is the
quality of these products in terms of recalcitrance (carbon credits)? What is the impact of
these various sources on emissions of greenhouse gases from the soils (interactions between
biochar and soil organic matter; but also a potential regulatory role of biochar in emissions of
nitrous oxide)? Carbon sequestration through biochar is not only a technical issue, it is likely
to have also social consequences. How do national policies hinder or stimulate a biochar
credit system compared to a system that provides payments for above-ground carbon storage
in woody vegetation? Together with project #4 the project will assess potential trade offs
between agricultural sustainability and productivity and carbon sequestration and link these
data in a decision model that could affect policy makers and institutional discourses when
scaling up local Terra Preta Nova projects. Together with project #4 it provides a framework
for further questions such as: To whom would benefits (agricultural production, carbon
sequestration) accrue? Who would decide about quantities and rates of charcoal addition to
such soils? Who decides in cases there is a trade off between soils as carbon sinks and Terra
Preta Nova soils as sources for sustainable agriculture?
6. Looking into the palaeo-economic origin of Terra Preta
Country: Brazil
The abundance and high fertility of Terra Preta suggests that native populations were dense
and characterized by sedentary settlement before the arrival of Europeans. Large sedentary
populations indicate an extraordinary food production capacity. Building and maintaining
Terra Preta must also have absorbed a substantial amount of labour. These Amerindian
populations, therefore, demonstrated sophisticated levels of engineering, planning, and
cooperation. The concerted effort to create Terra Preta has impressive technical and social
dimensions. The objectives of this project are to (1) explore the socio-economic and
biophysical (presence of nutrient sources) conditions that gave rise to the development of
Terra Preta and validate these through archaeological studies; (2) use geo-information tools
(GIS) to understand the spatial extent of Terra Preta over different scale levels; and (3) to
derive implications for current efforts to invest in new fertile soils that allow sustainable and
productive agriculture (Terra Preta Nova). The socio-economic underpinnings will be
analyzed with aid of dynamic simulation models that integrate human behaviour and
technological innovations, population dynamics, and environmental change. Starting from
micro-foundations (individual decision-making), such models indicate under what conditions
societies are likely able to coordinate their efforts and overcome incentives of individuals to
‘free ride’. Understanding past human impacts could help predict results of current changes
and propose new policy directions. The insights of this project will not only allow comparison
of the implications of competing theories on the origins of Terra Preta, and guide the search
for new archaeological evidence, but also assist contemporary initiatives to invest in soil
improvement. Together with project #7 it will study the quantities of inputs to reconstruct 3-D
models of Terra Preta (spatial extent, depth).
7. Reconstructing the origin of Terra Preta – a mechanistic, stoichiometric nutrient
balance approach
Country: Brazil
Attempts to understand the origin of Terra Preta (and thereby also the creation of Terra Preta
Nova) suggest that neither charcoal alone nor mineral nutrients alone can raise the fertility of
these soils sustainably. Interactions between the different components of the input are poorly
understood. Therefore, our understanding of the possibly differential intentionality with which
Terra Preta and Terra Mulata were created remains inadequate. The following research
questions will be addressed: (1) how do C:N, C:P and N:P ratios differ between charcoal and
non-pyrogenic C? (2) how do Ca and P scale between the different input sources, and what
information does it provide on the relative importance of terrestrial and aquatic inputs?; (3)
how do Ca and Mg scale, and what information does it provide over the relative importance
of terrestrial and aquatic inputs; (4) to what extent do micronutrients contribute to the
properties of Terra Preta? (5) how do pyrogenic and non-pyrogenic carbon sources interact,
and contribute to humus formation (especially Dissolved Organic Carbon); (6) how do Ca, P,
Fe oxides and pyrogenic carbon interact in stabilizing organic matter (litter input)?; (7) how
do pyrogenic carbon sources contribute to differential functioning of Terra Preta and Terra
Mulata? Together with project #6 it will study the quantities of inputs to reconstruct 3-D
models of Terra Preta (spatial extent, depth).
8. Soil biota in Terra Preta soils
Country: Brazil
While soil physical and chemical properties of Terra Preta are fairly well known, soil biology
is lagging behind. We hypothesize that soil biota play a crucial role in Terra Preta functioning,
as Terra Preta soils have been characterised as ‘living soils’. The ways in which previous and
present-day management practices affect soil biota and how this affects their agronomic
potential are not known, either. The following groups of soil organisms will be studied: root
mutualistic micro-organisms (rhizobia, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi), saprotrophic microorganisms that can attack recalcitrant (pyrogenic) materials; ecosystem engineers such as
earthworms. More specifically the project will test the following hypotheses: (1) Terra Preta
food webs could be characterized by differently co-evolved mutualists (rhizobia, AMF); (2)
high P levels could positively affect rhizobia and negatively affect mycorrhizal functioning,
making their combined effect difficult to predict; (3) the composition of saprotrophic microorganisms that decompose fresh organic inputs differs between Terra Preta and oxisols; (4)
Terra Preta soils contain micro-organisms with enhanced capabilities to decompose
substances with high recalcitrance; (5) Terra Preta and oxisols differ in species composition,
abundance and functional groups of earthworms; (6) earthworm species adapt to (or even coevolve with) Terra Preta; (7) ecosystem engineers (earthworms) play a causal role in the
origin or maintenance of Terra Preta. Finally the project will study local knowledge of these
organisms and the way(s) in which local people use soil biological activity as indicator for
Terra Preta.
9. Farmers’ perception and actual use of the fertility of Terra Preta
Country: Brazil
Transformation of inherently infertile oxisols into highly productive Terra Preta by preColumbian civilizations has been linked with technological innovations resulting from
increasing population pressure but also with nomadic patterns. These innovations were
escorted by complex management systems of soils and plant resources in such a way that soil
fertility was increased. As a consequence such soils are used for various purposes; but they
also constitute a major cultural heritage. While the Brazilian laws aims to protect Terra Preta
soils from other uses, these soils are currently being used for different purposes. This project
will study actual use of existing Terra Preta soils (current demand, purpose of use, and
management), focussing on Terra Preta soils that are already under agriculture. Understanding
farmers’ perceptions of soil fertility and their designs of cropping systems illustrates the
importance of local construction of knowledge and practices, allows us to disentangle the
impact of ‘good soils’ versus ‘good farmers’, which can be used for the design of future
systems. More specifically the project aims at (1) analysing farmers’ knowledge soils and
how this knowledge is turned into practices of soil and crop management; (2) assessing
farmers’ livelihoods in relation to that knowledge, their actual cropping and weed
management practices, and vicinity of markets; (3) exploring and developing potential future
soil and crop management strategies as part of more encompassing livelihood strategies; (4)
analysing the compatibility of these scenarios with both farmers’ livelihood strategies and
national policies in order to determine the acceptability for various stakeholders. The
information provided by this project will allow to define sustainable agricultural practices for
Terra Preta soils that are already in cultivation. Such sustainable practices could also make a
major contribution to Terra Preta Nova soils for agricultural purposes (project #4).
PhD program and description of grants
Below we include some basic elements of the PhD program at Wageningen University
(WUR). This document does not provide, however, a full description of the PhD program nor
includes possible future changes in the rules. For a complete description, please visit the link:
http://www.wageningenuniversity.nl/UK/education/programmes/PhD+programmes/. We
provide as well details on the conditions of the PhD student grants in the Terra Preta program.
The PhD Program at WUR in short
The PhD programs at Wageningen University are compiled and coordinated by seven
Graduate Schools that are organized in the Wageningen Graduate Schools (WGS). PhD
students get enrolled in one of these Graduate Schools at the beginning of their PhD program.
The four-year PhD program at WUR largely consists of conducting research (under
supervision), writing a thesis (dissertation), participating in educational activities (such as
courses, seminars at Wageningen University or elsewhere) and supervising MSc students.
These different tasks are defined in a Training and Supervision Plan (TSP; for more details
http://www.wageningenuniversity.nl/UK/education/programmes/PhD+programmes/Training+
and+Supervision+Plan/). The TSP is elaborated by the PhD student and the supervisors in
consultation with the Graduate School. It aims to provide the students with in-depth
knowledge of specific research issues and general skills, and to help the student broadening
his/her scientific scope and integrating his/her PhD research in other research areas and in a
societal context. It should be noted that PhD students participating in the Terra Preta program
will be required to include in their TSP activities that would provide them with skills to carry
out research in an interdisciplinary context. Once the TSP has been approved by the Graduate
School, the TSP represents an agreement between the student and the supervisors. Therefore,
both the student and the supervisors can obtained rights and obligations from the TSP. It
should be emphasized, however, that the TSP is a plan that can always be updated or adjusted
in the course of the PhD project.
There are several types of PhD students at WUR, differing mostly on their affiliation and
funding sources. The PhD students of our program will be considered “Sandwich PhD
students”. Consequently, PhD students will follow the trajectory described in Table 1 during
their 4 year as PhD students. We want to stress that the first stay in the Netherlands (6-8
months long) is very important because by the end of the period students need to be formally
admitted at one of the graduate schools of WUR. For being formally admitted students must
have their TSP and proposal approved, and must have met the WUR English requirements
(see below for more details).
English requirements
WUR has high requirements regarding the mandatory English level for being formally
admitted to a graduate schools (Table 2). Candidates accepted to the Terra Preta program will
be required to achieve the WUR required English level during their stay in the Netherlands.
Students not achieving the required levels will not be allowed to continue their studies.
Supervisors at WUR and local organizations
Students will have one to two Dutch supervisors, and one to two local supervisors, depending
on the research topic. While in the Netherlands students will be based at one research group
(for example, at Soil Quality group) of the university. While in the country of origin students
will be affiliated to one of the local partner organizations. Consequently, both the groups at
WUR and the local partners will provide office space, access to infrastructure and office
facilities to the students (e.g., access to printers).
Table 1. Description of the different stages of a 4 year PhD trajectory at Wageningen
University. The total number of months to be spent in the Netherlands is 18 months, which
can be distributed differently depending on the student development and needs.
Period
6 -8 months
Location
Wageningen
30 months
at country of
(with inorigin
between
short visit to
the
Netherlands)
2-3 months
Wageningen
7-10 months
Wageningen
Activities
- prepare TSP, study the literature, elaborate research
proposal, and follow courses. Activities are developed in
collaboration with Dutch and local supervisors
- English requirement is met at the latest by the end of stay
- student is formally admitted to the Graduate School
- carry on field work of the proposal under close supervision
of local and Dutch supervisors
- analyze data and write one to two thesis chapters
- Dutch supervisors will visit the student during this period
- Student will participate in annual program meetings and
other activities planned by the Terra Preta program
- Analyze data of first chapter
- Write first chapter of thesis
- finish data analysis, write thesis (mostly consisting of 4
chapters plus introduction and synthesis chapters)
- take additional courses and participate at international
conferences
Table 2. WUR requirements for being accepted at graduate schools of Wageningen University.
PhD students participating in the Terra Preta program have to meet the English level required
at the latest at the end of the first stay in the Netherlands to be able to continue in the program.
Type of exam
WUR requirements for being
accepted at graduate schools
IELTS
6.5 (all parts min. 6.0)
TOEFL written (max 677)
580
TOEFL computer
237
TOEFL internet (max 120)
92-93
Description of grants of the Terra Preta program
The Terra Preta program will provide to the students a stipend during their four year period1.
The stipend varies depending if the student is in the Netherlands (900€ per month) or in the
country of origin (700€ per month). The program will also cover the insurance cost when
students are in the Netherlands, visa costs, travelling costs to the Netherlands and country of
origin (maximum of 3 trips), and small allowances for settling down, buying books and
sending material back home (total of 550€). The research groups to which students are
affiliated will cover the costs of courses and conferences to a maximum of 2500 €.
1
This is not normally the case for other sandwich PhD students, who normally get an stipend from
Wageningen University only when they are in the Netherlands.