Download 1 THEME: BIODIVERSITY 1.1 Introduction

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THEME: BIODIVERSITY
1.1
Introduction
The word biodiversity has a variety of meanings. At its simplest it is species richness,
the number of species present in a given area. More often biodiversity is used to
mean the variety of life on our planet, measurable as the variety within species,
between species, and the variety of ecosystems. South Africa has a very substantial
share of global biodiversity within its borders, ranking third of any country in the
world. Owing to its broad range of climatic conditions, geology, soils and landscapes,
the Eastern Cape’s contribution to the national ranking is important. In fact, three
renowned biodiversity hotspots of global significance, the Maputaland-PondolandAlbany hotspot, the Succulent Karoo hotspot and the Cape Floral Kingdom, all
partially fall within the Eastern Cape. Other noteworthy features are the scenic and
diverse coastline, the expansive grasslands, the southern Drakensburg Mountains,
the Karoo and the indigenous forests that attract eco-tourists to the area.
Our biological heritage is important to us in many ways – providing us with
ecosystem services like clean water, contributing directly to the economy through
industries like fishing and tourism, supporting livelihoods by providing food,
medicines and building materials and generally improving our health and well-being.
The value of biological diversity has three components:
1.
Many species have a direct value through the products that can be harvested,
for instance, many medicines used throughout the world have active
ingredients extracted from plants and animals.
2.
The pollination of agricultural crops by insects is an example of the indirect
value where aspects of biodiversity bring economic benefit without the need
to consume the resource.
3.
There is also an ethical value to the diversity of life. Although it does not
always lend itself to economic valuation in monetary terms, we still appreciate
the beauty of the rose flower.
Through the most powerful human influence, habitat destruction and ill-conceived
developments, biodiversity is under threat world-wide. The focus is frequently on the
accelerated rate of disappearance of a species in the face of human influence. The
fossil record tells us that individual species evolve all the time and that they last on
average 1 – 10 million years. With an estimated total of 10 million species on earth,
between 100 (0.001%) and 1,000 (0.01%) species would go extinct each century.
Alarmingly, the current observed rate of extinction of birds and mammals is about 1%
per century, which is 100 – 1,000 times greater than the ‘natural’ background rate
(Begon et al., 1996). To counteract this mass extinction, conservation action is
needed that is effective in maintaining the ecosystem services (e.g. fishing, grazing,
clean water and air) provided by high levels of biodiversity.
Biodiversity encompasses more than just species richness. We should ensure that
we protect representatives of as many types of communities and ecosystems as
possible. By conserving suitable habitat we are also improving the survival chances
of the species and populations contained therein. Living landscapes preserve the
option value of biodiversity – the potential to provide benefits in the future. To protect
biodiversity effectively, we need to conserve (Driver et al., 2003):


A representative sample of all biodiversity
The ecological and evolutionary processes that allow this biodiversity to persist
over time
The systematic approach to conservation planning involves setting quantitative
conservation targets, for instance the number of hectares of river corridor that need
to be set aside to remain undeveloped. Quantitative conservation targets show how
much we need to conserve in order to achieve the goal of living landscapes.
Currently there are a number of regional and national conservation planning
initiatives overlapping with the province. These include: NSBA, DWAF Forest
Conservation Planning, Wild Coast Conservation Plan, Pondoland Systematic
Conservation Plan, STEP, SKEP, C.A.P.E and Grasslands Programme conservation
plans, and the Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project conservation plan, (Berliner
& Desmet, 2007).
In order to integrate these initiatives, the Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation
Plan was compiled in 2007 as a single, user friendly, biodiversity landuse decision
support tool for the whole province. Much of the statistical information and
interpretation presented in this chapter has been derived from this comprehensive
resource.
This chapter explores the current state of biodiversity in comparison to that reported
on in the 2004 EC SOER.
1.2
Drivers and Pressures
Important driving forces putting pressure on the biodiversity resources of Eastern
Cape are:
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Population growth
The demand for economic growth to provide wealth and job creation
Demand for housing and associated services for historically disadvantaged
people
Unsustainable extraction of natural resources as a result of poverty or greed
Poor land use practices promoting soil erosion and infestation by invasive alien
plants
Altered veld fire regimes and runaway fires
Poor waste and pollution management
Afforestation
Emerging biofuels industry
Climate change
Lack of understanding (ignorance of the importance of conserving biodiversity).
With an estimated annual population growth rate of 1% for the period 2001 – 2005
(Lehola, 2006) more and more South Africans are born every day whose basic
human needs for food, freshwater and fuel are making unprecedented demands on
our global and local ecosystems. Beyond the necessities of survival, there is
increasing demand of society for more material goods and services.
South Africans already consume more resources per capita than people in any other
African nation. As previously disadvantaged people strive to increase material wealth
and the comforts and conveniences they have been denied before the new political
dispensation, the strain on natural resources and biodiversity will only increase.
Ignorance of the importance of conserving biodiversity through lack of understanding
should not be underestimated as a contributing factor. Subjects dealing with the
conservation of our biological heritage are only recent arrivals in the school
curriculum and the demand for environmental education by appropriately qualified
teachers exceeds the supply by far, especially in out-of-town places.
1.3
State
The 2004 SOER of the Eastern Cape reported on the State of the Biodiversity
Environment through the following indicators:
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1.3.1
Habitat transformation
Extinct, threatened and endemic species per taxonomic group
Distribution and abundance of selected alien species
Extent of conserved areas in the province.
Habitat transformation
Habitat transformation was presented in the 2004 as per percentage of a municipal
area using the National Land Cover Data Set dated 1996.
The National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (NSBA, Driver et al., 2005) expanded
on this data set and used maps of land classes, such as vegetation types or habitat
types (e.g. Southern Mistbelt Forest), to represent biodiversity features (pattern and
process), habitat transformation, protected areas and future land use pressure,
across the nation.
Ecosystem status therefore represents a better indicator of biodiversity as it
incorporates habitat transformation, irreversibility, threatened species status, etc. and
is therefore used as an indicator in this section.
The NSBA should be seen as a conservative assessment because the data it uses
from the 2004 South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) vegetation map
for South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Mucina and Rutherford, 2006) took a
number of years to collect. It is likely that further loss of natural habitat has taken
place since then, but these are the best available data.
By using land classes incorporating expert knowledge about biological characteristics
as surrogates of biodiversity (Lombard et al., 2003), the NSBA was able to overcome
the problem of species-based inventories being hampered by incomplete data (Driver
et al., 2003). They also avoided the collection bias (museum collection species
distribution records tend to be concentrated along roads and other easily accessible
places) and problems with extrapolating from one species group to another. In the
absence of comprehensive data sets of the occurrence and status of species of
conservation concern in the Eastern Cape, the NSBA approach of using land classes
as stand-ins for biodiversity is adopted. If required at some stage, this makes for an
easy comparison between the national performance of biodiversity protection and
that of the Eastern Cape.
The classification of how intact and well-functioning they are is based on four
categories (Table 1):
Table 1: Definition of ecosystem status categories of land classes
Remaining natural habitat %
Category
80 - 100
Least threatened
60 - 80
Vulnerable
20 - 60
Endangered
0 - 20
Critically endangered
Definition
Still largely intact
Reasonably intact, but nearing the threshold
beyond which they will start to lose
ecosystem functioning
Have lost significant amounts of their original
natural habitat, impairing their functioning
Have so little of the original habitat left that
not only their functioning has been severely
impaired, but species are being lost
The ecosystem status measures the amount of habitat lost in ecosystems (measured
as land classes) relative to the conservation targets for those ecosystems. In the
Eastern Cape, 5% of land classes are Endangered or Critically Endangered, with a
further 14% Vulnerable to lose ecosystem functioning (Figure 1).
Conservation Status of Land Classes
<1%
0% 5%
14%
81%
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Least Threatened
Figure 1: Percent breakdown of the ecosystem status of Eastern Cape land classes
The spatial representation in Figure 2 shows, that the western parts of the Eastern
Cape are still largely intact, whereas the eastern areas, particularly the former
Transkei area and those along the southern area, are under greater threat to lose
their ecological integrity.
Only 170 ha of Critically Endangered land classes were revealed in the GIS analysis
which represented less than 1% of the Eastern Cape. These were all Mangrove
Forests found along some of the estuaries north of the Kei River.
Endangered areas occur in the vicinity of Port Elizabeth and along the central
Transkei areas. The entire Wild Coast area is classified as Vulnerable, which is
cause for concern.
Figure 2: Ecosystem status of the land classes occurring in the Eastern Cape
1.3.2
Extent of formally conserved areas
Baseline information on formally conserved areas falling into Eastern Cape was
extracted from the South African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (Rouget et
al., 2004). The data was released by SANBI in 2005 and is current as of 2004.
Results are presented in Table 2.
Their percent
contribution to the total Eastern Cape area (16,898,531 ha) is also shown
Table 2. Extent of formally conserved areas of type 1 and 2* in Eastern Cape.
Protection
type
Type 1
Type 2
Total in types
1 and 2
Description
National Parks, Nature Reserves, Provincial
Nature Reserves, Local Authority Nature
Reserves and DWAF Forest Nature Reserves
Catchment Areas, Wildlife Management Area,
Private Nature Reserves, National Heritage
Sites, SANDF property, Bird Sanctuary,
Botanical Garden, State Land, Mountain
Catchment Area, DWAF Forest Area
Area
[ha]/
% of
Eastern
Cape
558,848
ha
3.2%
112,036
ha
0.6%
667,981
ha
3.95%
Source
Area [ha]/
% of
Eastern
Cape
Source
SANBI
638,622 ha
3.78%
ECBCP
SANBI
71,291 ha
0.42%
ECBCP
709,913 ha
4.2%
*Type 3 protected areas include game farms and other conservation areas. Due to the low level of
protection that they are afforded and frequent changes in their status they are not considered further
here.
Currently, nearly 6% of land in South Africa is under protection in Type 1 and Type 2
protected areas (Rouget et al., 2004). With a total area of 4.2% under formal type 1
and 2 protection, the Eastern Cape is still below the national average but it is
encouraging to know that plans are in place to expand the protected area network.
The total area under Type 3 protection amounts to 234,910 ha (ECBCP) which is an
additional 1.3% of the Eastern Cape under informal conservation.
Substantial plans are in progress to expand the protected area network. For example,
proposals are to expand the Addo Elephant National Park to 360 000ha and the
Tsitsikamma National Park is to be incorporated into the Garden Route Mega Park.
The current coverage of national parks has increased by 28% (Table 3).
Table 3: Planned protected area expansion for national parks within the Eastern Cape
National Parks
Addo Elephant National
Park
Mountain Zebra
National Park
1.3.3
2004 (SOER, 2004)
127556
Current status
140 000
7259
Tsitsikamma National
Park
6205
24 596 (SANBI)/
28 412
(www.sanparks.org)
12 954
Camdeboo National
Park
TOTAL
Not listed
19 405
141020
196955
Comment
Plans to expand to 360
000ha Mega Reserve
Plans to incorporate
into Garden Route
National Park
Ecosystem protection
It is informative to compare the level of ecosystem functioning (Figure 3) with the
protection level enjoyed by each of the land classes in the Eastern Cape. This tells
how well the protected area network in the province is performing in terms of
representing terrestrial biodiversity.
The analysis presented graphically in Figure 1 is based on a lenient definition of what
constitutes protected areas. There are many types of protected areas and they do not
confer equal amounts of protection to the vegetation type/land class in which they are
located. National Parks, Provincial Nature Reserves, Local Authority Nature
Reserves and DWAF Forest Nature Reserves present the highest level of formal
protection. At the other end of the scale are game farms, private game reserves and
conservancies that are informal by nature (un-gazetted) and do not provide secure
long-term protection of biodiversity. Still, for the valuable contributions that they make
– albeit at a variable quality – they have been included in the suite of protected areas.
All of the Well Protected and Moderately Protect land classes occur in the southwestern corner of the province. Inland areas north and east of Queenstown have no
protection as well as the east-west belt from Bedford, Somerset East to Jansenville
(Figure 3). Overall, the hardly (48.1%), poorly (34.8%) and not protected (9.8%)
areas make up 92.7% of the Eastern Cape, with the balance being made up by the
moderately and well protected areas.
Table 4 shows that there is a mismatch between the conservation status groups of
ecosystems/land classes and the level of protection that they enjoy. The Eastern
Cape’s Critically Endangered Mangrove Forest land class is not protected but 11 of
the Least Threatened land classes receive full protection.
A plausible explanation for this mismatch is that the Eastern Cape’s network of
protected areas was not established to conserve a representative sample of its
biodiversity. Rather, the nature reserves etc. were mostly created in scenic places
where the economic potential of the landscapes was low and where land was cheap
(Driver et al., 2003). The expansion plan of protected areas as is described in
Section 9.3.2 above is in response to ensure that our protected areas are
representative of the biodiversity within the Eastern Cape.
Table 4: Evaluation matrix of ecosystem status by protection status for the 88 land classes
occurring in Eastern Cape
Least
Critically
Threatened
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
N/A
TOTAL
11
-
-
-
1
12
7
-
-
-
1
8
13
5
3
-
-
21
27
5
3
-
-
35
Not protected
8
2
1
1
-
12
N/A
-
-
-
-
-
-
66
12
7
1
2
88
Well protected
Moderately
protected
Hardly
protected
Poorly
protected
TOTAL
Figure 3: Protection level of land classes in Eastern Cape
1.4
Threatened Species Per Taxonomic Group
In 2004, the province was found to contain 4 endemic freshwater fish species, 8
threatened marine fish species, 6 threatened frog species (4 of these are endemic),
and 19 threatened reptile species (18 of these are endemic), (SOER 2004).
1.4.1
Threatened mammals
Table 5: Threatened Species Status of Mammals occurring within the Eastern Cape
Name
Scientific Name
Black rhinoceros
Oribi
Wild dog
Black-footed cat
Cape mountain zebra
Leopard
Brown hyaena
Blue duiker
Honey badger
Aardvark
Pangolin
Aardwolf
Serval
African wild cat
Small-spotted cat
Diceros bicornis
Ourebia ourebi
Lycaon pictus
Felis nigripes
Equus zebra
Panthera pardus
Hyaena brunnea
Philantomba monticola
Mellivora capensis
Orycteropus afer
Manis temminckii
Proteles cristatus
Felis serval
Felis lybica
Felis nigripes nigripes
2004 SOER
(Smithers, 1986)
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Rare
Vulnerable
Rare
Rare
Rare
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Rare
Rare
Vulnerable
Rare
Current
IUCN Redlist
(www.iucnredlist.org)
Critically endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near threatened
Near threatened
Least concern
Least concern
Least concern
Least concern
Least concern
Not listed
Not listed
Not listed
The 2004 SOER listed fifteen mammal species as Threatened. Only one species was
categorized as Endangered (Wild Dog), (See Table 5). A search on the IUCN Red
List revealed that only twelve species are listed as Threatened. Of concern is that
the Black Rhinoceros has jumped two categories and is now listed as Critically
Endangered. Other noticeable changes are the Oribi, which has moved into the
Endangered category and the Black-footed Cat which is now classified as Vulnerable
from Rare.
In summary, there are now three mammal species that fall into the Endangered and
Critically Endangered categories whereas previously there was only one species that
fall into this category.
1.4.2
Threatened bird species
Sixty-three bird species were listed as threatened as falling within the Eastern Cape.
The 2004 SOER lists 62 species and omits the Grey Crowned Crane. This
represents approximately 10% of all birds occurring within the Eastern Cape. Of
these 63 threatened species, 2 are Critically Endangered, 5 Endangered and 14
Vulnerable, (Barnes, 2000). A search on the global red list (IUCN Red List) revealed
that of the above species, none are Critically Endangered or Endangered, only 12 are
Vulnerable, 15 are Near Threatened and 33 are Near Threatened.
Locally, the SANBI Database lists the Wattled Crane, Knysna Warbler and the Cape
Parrot as Critically Endangered, (http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org). Furthermore
the Blue Crane, Grey Crowned Crane, Bearded Vulture and the Cape Vulture are
listed as Endangered (http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org).
The Egyptian Vulture is listed in SANBI as occurring in the Eastern Cape, but is
regarded as a vagrant with less than 50 sittings since 1945
(http://www.speciesstatus.sanbi.org).
Noticeable changes are the Blue Crane and Cape Vulture which are now
Endangered from Vulnerable, the Cape Parrot which is now Critically Endangered
from Endangered and the Knysna Warbler which has moved up two categories from
Vulnerable to Critically Endangered.
Table 6: Threatened bird species occurring in the Eastern Cape as categorised by Barnes, 2000
and the IUCN Red List
Common Name
Scientific Name
2004 Status (Barnes,
2000)
Bearded Vulture
Bittern
Black Harrier
Black Oystercatcher
Black Stork
Blackbellied Korhaan
Blackbrowed Albatross
Blackwinged Plover
Blue Crane
Blue Korhaan
Broadtailed Warbler
Bush Blackcap
Cape Cormorant
Cape Gannet
Cape Parrot
Cape Vulture
Caspian Tern
Gypaetus barbatus
Botaurus stellaris
Circus maurus
Haematopus moquini
Ciconia nigra
Eupodotis melanogaster
Diomedea melanophris
Vanellus melanopterus
Anthropoides paradisea
Eupodotis caerulescens
Schoenicola brevirostris
Lioptilus nigricapillus
Phalacrocorax capensis
Morus capensis
Poicephalus robustus
Gyps coprotheres
Hydroprogne caspia
Endangered
Critical
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Current Status
IUCN Redlist
(www.iucnredlist.
org)
Least Concern
Least Concern
Vulnerable
Near threatened
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Least Concern
Near threatened
Near threatened
Vulnerable
Least Concern
Vulnerable
Least Concern
SANBI Species
Status
(www.speciesstatus.
sanbi.org)
Endangered
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Common Name
Chestnutbanded Plover
Corncrake
Crowned Crane
Crowned Eagle
Scientific Name
Charadrius pallidus
Crex crex
Balearica regulorum
Stephanoaetus
coronatus
Damara Tern
Sterna balaenarum
Delegorgue's Pigeon Columba delegorguei
Finfoot
Podica senegalensis
Grass Owl
Tyto capensis
Greater Flamingo
Phoenicopterus roseus
Grey Petrel
Procellaria cinerea
Ground Hornbill
Bucorvus leadbeateri
Halfcollared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata
African Penguin
Spheniscus demersus
Knysna Warbler
Bradypterus sylvaticus
Knysna Woodpecker Campethera notata
Kori Bustard
Ardeotis kori
Lanner Falcon
Falco biarmicus
Lesser Flamingo
Phoenicopterus minor
Lesser Kestrel
Falco naumanni
Ludwig's Bustard
Neotis ludwigii
Mangrove Kingfisher Halcyon senegaloides
Marabou
Leptoptilos crumeniferus
Marsh Harrier
Circus ranivorus
Martial Eagle
Polemaetus bellicosus
Melodious Lark
Mirafra cheniana
Orange Thrush
Turdus gurneyi
Painted Snipe
Rostratula benghalensis
Pallid Harrier
Circus macrourus
Peregrine
Falco peregrinus
RoseateTern
Sterna dougallii
Rudd's Lark
Mirafra ruddi
Secretary bird
Sagittarius serpentarius
Shy Albatross
Diomedea cauta
Southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus
Stanley's Bustard
Neotis denhami
Striped Flufftail
Sarothrura affinis
Tawny Eagle
Aquila rapax
Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans
Wattled Crane
Burgeranus carunculatus
White Pelican
Pelecanus onocrotalus
Whitebacked Night
Gorsachias leuconotus
Heron
Whitebellied Korhaan Eupodotis cafra
Whitechinned Petrel
Procellaria aequinoctialis
Whitecrowned Plover Vanellus albiceps
Yellowbilled Stork
Mycteria ibis
Yellowbreasted Pipit
Anthus chloris
2004 Status (Barnes,
2000)
Near-threatened
Current Status
IUCN Redlist
(www.iucnredlist.
org)
Near threatened
Near threatened
Vulnerable
Least Concern
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Endangered
Critical
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Near threatened
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Near threatened
Least concern
Least
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near Threatened
Least Concern
Least Concern
Near threatened
Vulnerable
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Near threatened
Near threatened
Not Listed
Least Concern
Near threatened
Least Concern
Least Concern
Not Listed
Least Concern
Near threatened
Least Concern
Near threatened
Least Concern
Least Concern
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Least Concern
Least Concern
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Not Listed
Vulnerable
Least Concern
Least Concern
Vulnerable
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
SANBI Species
Status
(www.speciesstatus.
sanbi.org)
Endangered
Vulnerable
Critically Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Critically Endangered
2
5
31
24
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Near Threatened
Figure 4: Threatened Bird Species Status indicating number of bird species within each category
(Barnes, 2000)
1.4.3
Threatened plant species
The 2004 SOER provides a thorough overview of the 316 threatened plant species
as occurring within the Eastern Cape. The overall threatened status of these plants
has been revised by SANBI.
Table 7: Status of Threatened Plants Occurring within the Eastern Cape
Category
Extinct
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Intermediate/
Near
threatened
Insufficiently Known/
Data Deficient
Rare
Total
No. of Species (2004
SOER)
1
0
16
54
No. of Species Revised
SANBI Category
1
10
33
67
44
33
70
32
132
316
66
315
Noticeable changes are the increase in the number of species falling within the
Critically Endangered (0 to 10), Endangered (16 to 33) and Vulnerable (54 to 67)
Categories. There were no more recorded extinctions in terms of the comparison
presented in Table 7.
1.4.4
Other threatened species
(a)
Fish
Freshwater Fish
An overview of the Freshwater Fish of Southern Africa (Skelton, 2001) revealed red
data fish species that may be found within the freshwater streams and rivers of the
Eastern Cape (Table 8). According to Skelton (2001), the Eastern Cape Rocky
(Sandelia bainsii) is Endangered. However it is likely that the species will move up to
the Critically Endangered category (Cambray pers. comm.).
Alien invasive fish species such as Tilapia, Trout and Bass species remain a
significant threat to local indigenous species and are prevalent in most freshwater
streams and rivers.
Table 8: Freshwater fish species of conservation concern found within Eastern Cape (adapted
from Skelton, 2001)
Common name
Species
Red Data Status
Eastern Cape Redfin
Pseudobarbus afer
Near Threatened
Eastern Cape Rocky
Sandelia bainsii
Endangered
Marine Fish
Kindly refer to Section 8.3.3 in the Coast and Estuaries Theme Chapter.
1.5
Impacts
The driving forces listed earlier in this chapter that are placing pressure on the
biodiversity resources of the Eastern Cape often act in combination (change in land
use frequently goes together with changed fire regimes in fynbos) and so the
resulting impacts are impossible to apportion neatly.
This is, of course, a reflection of the multitudes of inter-dependencies of patterns and
processes in the natural world. A selection of the most important impacts of the loss
of biodiversity must suffice here.
Habitat fragmentation and habitat loss is an important cause of the decline in
biodiversity resources. The more specific the food and habitat needs of a species
are, the greater its vulnerability to agricultural activity, roads, cities and associated
sources of pollution. At the bitter end, the only surviving species will be human
commensals (rats, cockroaches etc.) whose habitat requirements correspond to the
degraded state associated with human activity. For all species that became extinct in
the process the potential to provide benefits in the future - the option value of
biodiversity – is lost forever.
Sprawled development is a leading cause of habitat loss and thus biodiversity loss.
Sprawl also exacerbates air and water pollution, both of which degrade environments
and further reduce biodiversity. New construction often increases erosion of land
cleared for development. This in turn increases stream siltation. As the land area for
natural ecosystems shrinks, there is less natural capacity to filter pollutants and
detoxify waters and less capacity to cycle nutrients and compost organic wastes.
Thus, as sprawl increases, species and ecosystem services decrease.
Ecosystem degradation and subsequent loss of ecosystem services tends to harm
poor rural people more than affluent city dwellers. Poor people have limited assets
and are more dependent on common property resources (e.g. fire wood), while the
wealthy are buffered against loss of ecosystem services by being able to purchase
basic necessities and scarce commodities.
Grasslands and Fynbos, important vegetation types in the Eastern Cape, require fires
to stimulate seed germination, but the fire frequency is important. Plants that are
killed by fire and that depend on re-seeding to survive as species have not enough
time to mature and to set seeds if fires occur too often. Conversely, if natural fynbos
is prevented from burning because the fire would bring an unacceptably high risk to
houses nearby, the fire-dependent plant components it contains will eventually die
from senescence.
Weakened immune systems and failure to reproduce are common effects of toxic
pollution in a wide array of species. Under the attack from pollution an ecosystem's
ability to function breaks down. This is how wetlands become cesspits. Pollution from
silt and excess nutrients chokes the life out of aquatic ecosystems, while in-stream
dams prevent anadromous fish species from reproducing upstream before returning
to the sea.
Global warming represents a profound and emerging threat to biodiversity around the
world. As temperatures rise, habitats for many plants and animals will change,
depriving them of the homes and niches to which they have adapted. For example,
increasing temperatures and sharply decreasing rainfall are expected to move the
winter-rainfall dominated Succulent Karoo biome southwards by about 2050, and
diminish its size, putting severe selective pressures on plant species in this biome.
The Fynbos biome is similarly expected to shift southwards, with the result that parts
of it are ‘pushed’ off the southern end of the continent (Simmons et al., 2004).
Small-scale range shifts with profound consequences may also occur. The altitudinal
limits of vegetation are broadly determined by the prevailing climate, particularly in
relation to thermal characteristics, and altitudinal shifts in these will affect the
distribution of animals dependent on these habitats.
1.6
Responses
1.6.1
Mainstreaming biodiversity in land use planning and decision-making
Increasing numbers of people placing greater demands on the natural environment
are compromising ecological integrity at an unprecedented rate. Mainstreaming
biodiversity considerations into socio-economic agendas holds most promise to turn
the situation around. It is necessary to:
 Integrate the protection and management of biodiversity resources with all human
development by means of regional and national conservation initiatives
 Build capacity in the areas of conservation assessment, taxonomy, green
technology and knowledge transfer
 Increase capacity in environmental law enforcement, management and education
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1.6.2
Strengthen existing biodiversity conservation programmes to identify ecosystems,
species and genetic resources that are at imminent risk of extinction
Implement strong countermeasures to slow down the speed with which the loss
of biodiversity occurs
Improving interactions with biodiversity conservation programmes
The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, no. 10 of 2004, provides
for the management and conservation of South Africa’s biodiversity within the
framework of the National Environmental Management Act, no. 107 of 1998. Since
the promulgation of the Act and the establishment of the South African National
Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) existing biodiversity conservation programmes (e.g.
STEP) have been strengthened considerably and a host of new initiatives aimed at
the protection of species and ecosystems have emerged in their wake.
The Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Planning initiative (STEP) is considered as a
localised biodiversity action plan that is aimed at safe guarding subtropical thicket
and the associated ecosystem processes that occur within it. The STEP domain
extends from Riversdale in the west to the former Transkei (Mbashe River) in the
east, and as far inland as subtropical thicket vegetation extends. The domain covers
an area of 105 454km2 (Pierce, 2003).
The Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (ECBCP) is the latest biodiversity
planning product developed for the Eastern Cape Province and its primary function is
to mainstream biodiversity considerations into the municipal planning process, in
particular the Spatial Development Frameworks (SDFs), in protecting biodiversity and
promoting appropriate development. The plan covers the entire Eastern Cape
province.
Overall Goals of the Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan are:
 Facilitate sustainable development in the Eastern Cape, by ensuring that the
province's ecosystems continue to deliver vital services for human well-being
 Providing information that strengthens land-use planning and streamlines
environmental decision-making
 Enhance effective conservation and management of biodiversity
 Guiding the expansion of the provincial protected area network
SANBI has established a Bioregional Programmes Co-ordination Unit based in East
London (hosted by the Eastern Cape Parks Board), to co-ordinate the
implementation strategies and action plans for the bioregional programmes within the
Eastern Cape. The Unit has a broad range of functions relating to the development,
implementation, co-ordination and mainstreaming biodiversity programmes in the
Eastern Cape.
1.6.3
Strengthening institutional capacity and cooperation
Environmental institutional capacity must be strengthened at the local authority level.
As a minimum, local authorities should have at least one person dedicated to
environmental management and biodiversity conservation, coastal management,
waste management and regulatory services.
Inter-departmental cooperation in environmental matters must be improved. For
instance, the Department of Land Affairs is undertaking area based planning to
ensure effective implementation of the land reform process. This process needs to be
aligned with existing conservation plans.
1.6.4
Linking biodiversity protection and economic upliftment
Biodiversity protection provides an opportunity for less formal, nature-based
community initiatives to act as economic engines and job creators. A few examples
are introduced below. Some of these initiatives are good examples of collaborative
programmes that involve a range of national agencies and include municipalities at a
local level.
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1.7
Expanded public works programme, eco-tourism, bee farming, wild-flower
harvesting linked to IDP projects
LandCare Programme
Working for Water
Working for Wetlands
Working for the Coast
Linkages and inter-dependencies
Of the many inter-dependencies with key themes discussed in this report, the
following linkages stand out:
 There is an obvious link to land degradation as it is a driver of biodiversity loss
 Climate change and global warming: The predicted increase in ambient
temperatures as well as increased variability in rainfall pattern influences
biodiversity patterns and processes
 Urbanisation: Increasing pressure on local authorities to approve applications for
proposed developments in urban areas is resulting in greater pressure on
undeveloped land in the district.
1.8
Identified gaps
In the absence of comprehensive data sets of the occurrence and status of species
of conservation concern in the Eastern Cape, the NSBA approach of using land
classes as “stand-ins” for biodiversity was adopted. It would have been informative to
track the population dynamics of ecosystem keystone species obtained from actual
field data.