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B2Topic2
B2.1–PlantandAnimalCells
Plantandanimalcellscanbe
studiesingreaterdetailusinga
lightmicroscope.
Lightpassesthroughathinsliceof
thespecimen.Lensesmagnifythe
specimenmanyBmes.
7Organelles
Func.on
CellMembrane
Controlsmovementintoandoutofthecell.
Nucleus
ContainsDNA.Controlsthecell
Cytoplasm
WherechemicalreacBonstakeplace.
Mitochondria
WhererespiraBonoccurs.
CellWall
MadeofCELLULOSE.Supportsthecell.
Vacuole
ContainsCELLSAP.Helpssupporttheplantbykeepingthecellrigid
Chloroplast
ContainsCHLOROPHYLL.AbsorbsLIGHT.Wherephotosynthesistakesplace
B2.2–InsideBacteria
Microscopeshaveimprovedinlast350years.
Lightmicroscopescanmagnify1500x.
Electronmicroscopescanmagnify2000000x.
Electronmicroscopesproduceveryclear
images.
Electronmicroscopesshowmoredetailofthe
specimen.
2typesofDNA
4Organelles
Func.on
ChromosomalDNA
AgiantloopofDNAcontainingmostofthegeneBcmaterial.
PlasmidDNA
SmallloopsofDNAthatcarryextrainformaBon.
Flagella
Longwhiplikestructuresthataidmovement.
CellWall
Providessupportbutismoreflexiblethanaplant.Notmade
ofcellulose.
B2.3-DNA
KeyDefiniBon
AgeneisasecBonofDNAthatcodes
foraspecificprotein.
DNAismadeupoftwostrands
coiledtoformadoublehelix.
Thetwostrandsarelinkedby
complementarybasesheldtogether
byweakhydrogenbonds.
Adenine(A)pairswithThymine(T)
Cytosine(C)pairswithGuanine(G)
B2.4–ExtracBngDNA
1.  Choponionorpeasintochunks.
2.  Grindinapestleandmortar.
3.  Mixtogetherwithwashingupliquid,saltandwaterand
sBr.
4.  Incubatethemixtureat60degreesCenBgradefor15
minutesinawaterbath.
5.  Filterthemixturethroughfilterpaperintoaboilingtube.
6.  Takeicecoldalcoholandpouritslowlydownthesideof
theboilingtube.Thealcoholwillformatransparentlayer
ontopoftheliquid,asthealcoholislessdense.
7.  YouwillseetheDNAbetweenthetwoliquidlayers.
B2.5–DNADiscovery
London-MauriceWilkins&RosalindFranklinusingX-raysto
studyDNAstructure.Fromthepacernsmadetheycouldwork
outhowtheatomswerearranged.
Cambridge–Watson&CrickwerebuildingamodelofDNAusing
datafromotherscienBsts.TheyweregivenacopyofFranklins
photographswhichenabledthemtocrackthecode.Franklin
didn’tknowtheyhadthephoto.
WatsonandCrickpublishedtheirpaperwiththestructureof
DNAbutdidn’tacknowledgethephotographtheyused
WatsonandCrickwereawardedtheNobelPrizewithMaurice
WilkinsbutRosalindFranklinhadalreadydiedsodidnotgetthe
prize.
B2.5–DNADiscovery
TheHumanGenomeProject–
InternaBonalProject.
3billionbasesthatmakeupthe
humangenomeweresequenced.
Ittook13yearsandscienBsts
collaboratedusingITtostoreand
sharedata.
Allhumanshave99.9%oftheir
DNAincommon.
5Implica.onsoftheHGP
1.  ImprovedgeneBctesBngfor
disorders.
2.  Newwaysoffindingnew
genesthatmayincreaserisk
ofcertaindiseases.
3.  Newtreatmentsandcures
fordiseases.
4.  Newwaysoflookingat
changesinthegenomeover
Bme.
5.  Personalisedmedicinesthat
workwithaparBcular
genotype.
B2.6–GeneBcEngineering
Knowthisprocess!
Defini.on-Theprocessofremovingagenefromoneorganismandinser.ngitinto
theDNAofanother.
B2.6–GeneBcEngineering
Example
Advantages
Disadvantages
Betacarotenein 1.  Betacaroteneusedtomakevitamin 1.  Couldcrossbreedwithwildriceand
goldenriceto
A
contaminatewildriceDNA
reducevitamin 2.  VitaminAwillreducedeathand
2.  LevelsofbetacaroteneinGolden
Adeficiencyin
blindness.
Ricemightnotbehighenoughto
humans
makeadifference
3.  Canbeexpensivetobuy
4.  Producessterileseedssofarmers
havetobuythemeveryyear
Theproduc.on 1.  Canbeusedbyvegans
ofhumaninsulin 2.  Supplynotaffectedbyanimal
byGMbacteria
diseases
3.  Supplynotaffectedbydemandfor
meat
4.  CanbemadeinvastquanBBes
5.  Cheaper
1.  Bacteriaproduceinsulinslightly
differentlysomaynotworkfor
somepeople
Theproduc.on
ofherbicide
resistantcrops
1.  Herbicideresistantweedscan
develop
2.  CrosspollinaBonwithwildplants
3.  PotenBallossofbiodiversity
1.  Reducesamountofcropspraying
Defini.ons
Haploid–Havingonesetofchromosomes.
Diploid–Havingtwosetsofchromosomes.
Gamete–thesexcells(spermandegg)
B2.7–Mitosisand
Meiosis
Mitosis
•  TheproducBonoftwo
daughtercellswithidenBcal
setsofchromosomesinthe
nucleusastheparentcell.
•  ResultsintheformaBonof
twogeneBcallyidenBcal
diploidcells.
•  Occursduringgrowthand
repairandasexual
reproducBon
Meiosis
•  TheproducBonoffour
daughtercells,eachwith
halfthenumberof
chromosomesastheparent
cell.
•  ResultsintheformaBonof
geneBcallydifferenthaploid
gametes.
•  Occurswhenmaking
gametesonly.
AtferBlisaBon,haploidgametesjointoformadiploidzygote.
B2.8-Clones
Cloning–Anexampleofasexual
reproducBon.
Howtoproduceaclone
1.  Removeadiploidnucleus
fromabodycell
2.  Enucleateaneggcell
3.  Insertdiploidnucleusinto
enucleatedeggcell.
4.  SBmulatethediploid
nucleustodividebymitosis.
5.  Implantintosurrogate
mother.
Enucleate–Removethenucleus
B2.8-Clones
Advantagesof
Cloning
Disadvantagesof
Cloning
RisksofCloning
1.  Canmakea
geneBcally
idenBcalcopyof
ananimalwith
desirable
characterisBcs.
2.  Canbeusedto
makecopiesof
GManimalsto
guaranteeall
offspringhave
thetrait.
1.  Clonedanimals
olendieyoung.
2.  Clonedanimals
olenagemore
quickly.
3.  Complicated
process.
1.  Veryfew
embryosdevelop
properlyresulBng
indeformiBes.
B2.9–StemCells
Keydefini.ons
StemCell-Anunspecialisedcellthatcandividetoproducemorestemcellsor
differenttypesofspecialisedcell.
DifferenBate–Becomespecialised.
EmbryonicStemCell–CandifferenBateintoalmostanycelltype.
AdultStemCell–CandifferenBateintoonlyafewcelltypes.
SpecialisedCell–acellwithaparBcularfuncBone.g.neurone,redbloodcell.
AdvantagesofStemCell
Research
DisadvantagesofStemCell
Research
1.  Embryonicstemcellscan
developintoalmostevery
typeofhumancell.
2.  Bonemarrowstemcells
canbeusedtotreat
lukaemia.
3.  Adultstemcellsmaybe
usedinfutureinsteadof
embryonicstemcells.
1. 
2. 
3. 
RisksofStemCellResearch
Embryonicstemcellscan 1.  Technologycouldbeused
comefromlelover
illegally.
embryosfromferBlity
2.  Riskoftheunknown–long
treatments.
termeffectsmaynotbe
RiskofrejecBonifnot
shownforyears.
fromapaBentsownstem
cells.
Couldleadtotumours
forming.
B2.10–ProteinManufacture
B2.10ProteinManufacture
Eachaminoacidis
codedforby3
specificbases.DNA
isatripletcode.
Transcrip.on
1.  DNAdoublehelixunzips.
2.  ThecomplementarymRNAstrandismadeinthenucleusand
passesoutthroughapore.
Transla.on
1.  mRNAacachestotheribosome.
2.  AtripletofbasesonthemRNA(codon)codeforaspecificamino
acid.
3.  tRNAtransfersaminoacidstotheribosome.
4.  AminoacidslinktogethertoformpolypepBdes.
RNAissinglestrandedbutDNAisdoublestranded.
RNAcontainsUracil(U)insteadofthymine(T)
B2.11-MutaBons
MutaBon–Achangeinthesequenceofbasesinthe
geneBccode.
1.  Eachproteinhasitsownspecificnumberand
sequenceofaminoacids.
2.  ThisiscodedforbytheDNA.
3.  Therefore,eachproteinisadifferentshapeand
hasadifferentfuncBone.g.anenzyme.
4.  MutaBonschangethesequenceofthebases,
andthereforetheshapeoftheprotein.
5.  MostmutaBonsareharmful.
6.  RadiaBonandsomechemicalsincigarece
smokearemutagensandcausemutaBons.
B2.12-Enzymes
Enzymesarebiologicalcatalysts.Theyspeedupreac.ons.
TheseareexamplesofenzymecatalysedreacBons:
1.  DNAReplicaBon–Oneenzymeunzipsthetwo
strandsofDNA,theotherjoinsthenewbases
togethertomakethenewdoublestrandedmolecule.
2.  ProteinSynthesis–RNAPolymerasemakesthemRNA
strandfromtheDNAtemplate.
3.  DigesBon–Manyenzymesbreaklargermolecules
downintosmalleronesindigesBon.Thishappens
outsideofthebody.StaindigesBngenzymesin
washingpowdersbreakdownstaininclothes.
Microorganismsexcreteenzymesontofoodtobreak
themdownoutsidethebodyandthenabsorbthe
products.
B2.13–EnzymesandTemperature
EnzymesareSPECIFICtotheirsubstrate.Theyonlycatalyse
specificreacBonsinspecificcondiBons.Theyhaveaspecific
shapedacBvesite.
FactorsthataffectenzymeacBvity:
1.  Temperature
2.  pH
3.  SubstrateConcentraBon.
EnzymeacBvitycanbemeasuredbymeasuringthespeedat
whichaproductismadee.g.agas,orthespeedatwhicha
substrateisusedupe.g.staindigesBon.
B2.14–EnzymeAcBon
Astemperature
increases,sodoes
enzymeacBvity,upto
40oC.Aler40oCthe
acBvesiteisdenatured
andthereacBonstops.
AssubstrateconcentraBon
increases,sodoesenzyme
acBvity,uptoapointwherethe
numberofacBvesitesbecomes
limiBng.Theonlywaytospeed
upthereacBonalerthisisto
increasethenumberofacBve
sites.
Enzymescanneverbekilled.Theycan
onlybedenatured,whichiswherethe
shapeoftheacBvesitechanges.
Enzymeswillonlywork
ataspecificpH.Either
sideofthisopBmum
pH,theenzymewill
denatureandnot
work.
B2.14–EnzymeAcBon
Enzymesworklikealockandkey
LockandKey
EnzymeandSubstrate
Onekeywillonlyfitonelock.
Onesubstratewillonlyfitoneenzyme.
Thekeyfitsthelock.
ThesubstratefitstheacBvesite
Thekeyunlocksthelock.
Thesubstrateischangedintheenzyme
Wrongkeywon’tfitthelock.
Wrongsubstratewon’tfittheacBvesite.
B2.15AerobicRespiraBon.
• 
• 
• 
• 
Allorganismsaremadeofcells
EnergyreleasedbyrespiraBon
Cellsthatmovemoreneedmoreenergy.
Exercise=moreenergyneeded.
KeyTerms:
RespiraBon-thereleaseofenergyfrom
foodmoleculesthatactasfuelforthecell.
Diffusion-whensubstancesmovefroman
areaofhighconcentraBontoanareaoflow
concentraBon.
Glucose+Oxygen=CarbonDioxide+Water
AerobicrespiraBon=usesoxygentoreleaseenergyfromglucose.
Howdoesitgetdelivered?
•  Glucoseandoxygendiffusefromcapillariestorespiringcells
•  Carbondioxidediffusesfromrespiringcellstocapillaries
•  Capillaries-smallestvesselthatcarriesbloodbetweencells/onecellthick
•  SubstancesmovebydiffusiondownaconcentraBongradient=thediffusion
pathway.
•  Respiringcells=oxygenandglucoselevelsfallastheyareusedupin
aerobicrespiraBon/Carbondioxidelevelsincrease.
•  Gasexchange=thetransferofgases.
B2.16invesBgaBngTheeffectsof
exercise.
•  Exercise=increaseheartrateandhastopump
bloodfastertothemuscles.
•  Causesbreathingratetoincreaseandgetdeeper.
Why?
•  Cellsneedmoreoxygenandglucoseastheyneed
moreenergy.
•  Cellsproducemorecarbondioxideasaresult
whichneedstoberemoved.
B2.17AnaerobicrespiraBon
Cardiacoutput=stroke
volumexheartrate.
Glucoseàlac.cacid
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
AnaerobicrespiraBon=respiraBonwithoutoxygen
Glucoseisbrokendowntosupplyenergytothemuscles
ReleaseslessenergythenaerobicandproducesLacBcAcid
Amountofbloodpumpedaroundthebodydependsonthestrokevolumeandthe
heartrate.
Exercise=increaseinheartrateandstrokevolume.
LacBcAcidneedstobebrokendown=oxygenusedtobreakitdownintocarbon
dioxideandwater.
TherequirementofthisoxygentobreakdownthelacBcacidiscalledexcesspostexerciseoxygenconsumpBon(EPOC)
B2.18Photosynthesis.
Lightandchlorophyll
Carbondioxide+wateràglucose+oxygen
Photosynthesis=plantsmaketheirownfood
Useslightenergytoproduceglucosefromcarbondioxideandwater
Glucosestoredasstarch
Starch=lotsofglucosemoleculesjoinedtogether.
DigesBonbreaksdownstarch=glucose
Chlorophyll=greenfoundinchloroplastsabsorbslightfor
photosynthesis.
•  Variegatedleaves=thegreenpartsofaleafcontainthechlorophyll.
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
2.20Factorsthateffecttherateof
photosynthesis.
3factorsthateffectphotosynthesis.
•  Carbondioxide
•  Light
•  Temperature
•  All3areneededatopBmumamountforphotosynthesistobeatitsbest.
•  ThelimiBngfactoristheonethatisinshortsupply…..youmayhavelotsofCO2theright
temperaturebutliclelightthismeansphotosynthesiswillbeslow.
LimiBngfactor=
somethingcanaffect
therateof
photosynthesis.
AdaptaBonsofaleaf.
Upperepidermis=Bghtlypackedcells=lotsof
chloroplasts=lotsofphotosynthesis.
Airspaces=providelargesurfaceforcellsto
exchangewithgasesintheair.
Lowerepidermis=containstomata.
Stomata=openandclosetoallowgasesinto
theleaf.Locatedundersideoftheleaf.
Openinresponsetolight.
AllowCarbondioxideinandletsoutoxygen
andwatervapour.
3AdaptaBons
Hasstomataforgasexchange
(carbondioxide,oxygen,
watervapour)
Containschlorophyllin
chloroplaststoabsorblight.
Largesurfaceareatoabsorb
mostamountoflight.
B2.21WaterTransport
KeyDefini.ons
•  Thelossofwaterfromtheleavesdrives
transpira.on.
•  Transpira.on–themovementofwater
throughaplantandthelossofwater
throughtheleaves.
•  Osmosis=movementofwaterfromanarea
oflowconcentra.ontoanareaofhigh
concentra.onthroughapar.allypermeable
membrane.
•  Rootsabsorbnitratesandmineralions
dissolvedinwaterbyAc.vetransport.
Thisneedsenergyfromrespira.on
•  Watertransportedbyxylem
•  Nutrientstransportedbyphloem
RootHairCell
•  Jobofroot=anchorplant
andtakeupnutrients.
•  Roothairfoundonsurface
ofroot.
•  Role–toabsorbwater
anddissolvedminerals.
•  AdaptaBon=largesurface
area.
B2.22InvesBgaBngOsmosis
Osmosis
Watercanmoveacrosscellmembranesbecause
ofosmosis.Forosmosistohappenyouneed:
twosoluBonswithdifferentconcentraBonsand
aparBallypermeablemembranetoseparatethem
B2.23Organismsandtheir
environment
KeyTerms
•  Environment=anorganisms
surroundingsincludingthesoil,air,
waterandotherorganisminthearea.
•  Biodiversity=thedifferentplantsand
animalsinanarea.
•  Ecosystem=anareainwhichallthe
livingorganismsandallthenonliving
organismformarelaBonshipinorder
tosurvive.
•  Habitat=wheretheplantsand
animalsarefound/living.
•  PopulaBon=thenumberofanimalsin
agivenarea.
•  Sampling=lookingatsmallproporBon
oftheplantsandanimals.
Samplingtechniques=
•  1)Pooter=usedtocatchanimals.
•  2)Sweepnet=cancatchflying
animals.
•  3)Pondnet=tocatchaquaBc
animals.
•  4)pitfalltraps=buriedinthe
ground…theorganismsfallin.
•  5)quadrats=usedtosamplethe
populaBonsizeofplants=random
samplingorsystemaBcsampling.=
placingthequadratatregular
intervalsalongaline.
B2
Topic3CommonSystems
B2.25FossilsandevoluBon
Facts:
•  Themoonis30‘earths’away
•  Thesunis11,000‘earths’away
Keywords
•  Fossilrecord–ThecollecBonoffossilsidenBfiedfromdifferentperiodsofBmethatcanbe
interpretedtoformahypothesisabouttheevoluBonoflifeonEarth.
•  Fossil–ThepreservedtracesorremainofanorganismwhichlivedaverylongBmeago
•  Pentadactyl–fivefingeredorganism
Fossils
• 
• 
FossilsfromdifferentperiodsofBmeshoworganismshavechangedgradually=evolu.on.
Fossilrecordhasgaps
–  Sol.ssuesdecaynotformingfossils
–  Hardpartsoforganismscouldhavebeendestroyed
–  Manyfossilsareburiedtoodeeptobefound
ScienBstsusingincompletedatasomeBmesmakemistakes
Morefossils=moreaccurateconclusions
• 
• 
EvidenceforEvolu.on
•  Internalbonesofallvertebrate’slimbsaresimilar
•  Fossilsoflimblessvertebrateshavethesamefivefingeredstructure
•  Allvertebtatesevolvedfromonecommonancestor
•  EvoluBonofthelimbsisduetoadaptaBontohowtheorganismslivedandmoved,
B2.26Growth
Keywords
•  Percen.le–ThevalueofavariablebelowwhichacertainpercentageofobservaBonsfall.
•  StemCell–Anunspecialisedcellthatcandividetoproducemorestemcellsordifferentkindsofspecialisedcells
•  Differen.ate–Specialise,developintodifferentkindsofcell,asincellsthatbecomenerve,muscleorbonecells
•  Elonga.on–getnglonger
Facts
• 
• 
• 
• 
Growthiswhenanorganisms
increasesinsize,lengthand
mass
Tomonitorgrowthofbabieswe
check
–  Headcircumference
–  Weight
–  Height
Eachchildiscomparedtoachart
todeterminewhichpercen.leof
thepopulaBontheyarein.
Growthinvolves2things
GrowthinPlants
•  Growallthroughtheirlives
•  CellsdivideintheMeristem–behindtheBpoftherootandshoot
•  Cellsalsoelongate
•  Oldermeristemcellsdifferen.atetobecomespecialisedforexample:
–  Palisadeleafcell
–  Roothaircell
GrowthinAnimals
•  Celldivision
•  Animalsstopgrowingwhentheybecomeadults
•  Stemcellsareundifferen.ated
–  Increaseinthenumber •  Stemcellscanspecialiseintoallothercells
•  Adultshaveveryfewstemcells(onlyinbloodand
ofcells
skeletal.ssues)
–  Increaseinthesizeof
•  Mostanimalscannotregrowlimbsorbodyparts.
cells
Components
• 
Plasma
B2.27Blood
–  Fluidpartofblood
–  Transportscarbondioxide,hormonesandwaste
–  Paleyellow
• 
Redbloodcells
–  Nonucleus=moreroomforhaemoglobin
–  Madeinthebonemarrow.
–  Containredpigmenthaemoglobinwhichcarriesoxygen
Oxygen+Haemoglobin Oxyhaemoglobin
–  OxygeniscarriedinthebloodtotheBssuesforaerobicrespira.on
–  Biconcavedisc=largesurfaceareatovolumeraBoforfasterdiffusionofoxygen
• 
Whitebloodcells
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
• 
Animportantpartoftheimmunesystem
SomeproduceanBbodies(proteinsthatbindtomicrobesanddestroythem)
Otherssurroundanddestroyforeigncells
Allhaveanucleus
Madeinthebonemarrow
Allhaveanucleus
Platelets
–  Tinyfragmentsofcells(nonuclei)
–  Clumptogethertoformclots
–  Protectthebodybystoppingbleedingandformingascabtostopmicrobesentering.
B2.28Theheart
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
Thickerwallasit
pumpsbloodall
aroundthebody
• 
• 
Septum
Deoxygenatedblood(low
oxygenlevels)
Pumpedtothelungs(by
rightventricle)tocollect
oxygen
Oxygenatedblood
returnstoheart(Lel
side)
Pumpedtothebodycells
andBssues(bylel
ventricle)
Lelandrightsidework
togetheratthesame
Bme
Valvespreventbackflow
ofblood
Tendonsstopvalves
turninginsideout
B2.29Thecirculatorysystem
3typesofbloodvessel:
Arteries
•  Carrybloodawayfromtheheart
•  Havethickmuscularwalls
•  Havesmallinternallumen
•  Bloodunderhighpressure
Veins
•  Carrybloodtotheheart
•  Thinwalls
•  Largerinternallumen
•  Bloodunderlowpressure
•  Valvestopreventbloodflowing
backwards
Capillaries
•  Wallisonecellthick
•  Verylowbloodpressure
•  Allowsdiffusionbetweenblood
andBssues
churns
B2.30The
digesBve
system
Peristalsis
•  Musclescontract
inwavestomove
foodalongthe
alimentarycanal
(amusculartube
runningfrom
yourmouthto
youranus)
B2.31Breaking
downfood
Keywords
Enzyme–aproteinmoleculemadebylivingcellsthatspeedsuptherateofa
reacBon
Emulsion–amixtureinwhichparBclesofoneliquidaresuspendedinanother
liquid.
Diges.ngproteins
Diges.ng
Carbohydrates
Enzyme
involved
Proteases(e.g.
pepsin)
Carbohydrases(e.g. Lipases
amylase)
Brokendown
into…
Aminoacids
Simplesugars
(glucose)
GlycerolandFacyacids
Whereitoccurs Stomachfirstthen
smallintesBne
Mouthandsmall
intesBne
SmallIntesBne
AddiBonal
features
Amylaseis
denaturedby
stomachacid
•  Bilefromthegallbladder
breaksdownlargefatglobules
intodropletswithalarger
surfaceareatohelplipase.
•  Wesaybileemulsifiesthefat.
•  Bilealsoneutralisesthe
stomachacid.
Pepsinhasan
opBmumpHof2
(perfectfor
stomachacid)
Diges.ngFats
B2.32Villi
Keywords
Villi–fingerlikeprojecBonsinthesmallintesBne.
Diffusion–movementofparBclesfromanareaofhighconcentraBonto
anareaoflowconcentraBondownaconcentraBongradient.
InsidetheSmallIntes.ne
1.  Digestedfoodpassesintobloodbydiffusion
2.  Biggersurfaceareas=morediffusion
3.  Finger-likefoldscalledVilliincreasesurfaceareaofsmallintesBne
FeaturesofaVillustospeedupdiffusion
1.  Goodnetworkofcapillariesmovingabsorbednutrients
2.  LowconcentraBonoffood
3.  SteepconcentraBongradientmaintained
4.  Wallisasinglecelllayer(shorterdistance
todiffuse)
B2.34ProbioBcsandPrebioBcs–FuncBonalfoods
PlantStanolEsters
•  Oilysubstancesinplants
•  StopthesmallintesBneabsorbingcholesterol
•  Lowersbloodcholesterol
•  Useinmanyfoodslikeyogurtandspreads.
Probio.cs
•  Livebacteria–friendlyorbeneficial
•  BifidobacteriaorLactobacillus
•  Theyproducelac.cacidinyourgutandcompaniesclaimtheyimprovehealth
•  NOTENOUGHEVIDENCEtosupporttheclaimstheyareeffecBve
Prebio.cs
•  Substancesthebodycannotdigest
•  Theyactasfoodforthebeneficialbacteria
•  OligosaccharidesareacommonformofprebioBc(containedintomatoes,onionsandasparagus)
•  Alsofoundinspeciallymadedairyfoodsandsoldascapsules
•  IncreasingevidencesupportstheirposiBveeffectonhealth