Download The Scientific Method - A Level Sociology at Franklin College

The Extent to Which Sociology can be Considered as Scientific
Science as a Product of Modernity
Science was part of modernity. It is based on empirical evidence (observable evidence).
The Scientific Method
Science involves the hypothetico-deductive method. Features of this include:
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Hypothesis formation: forming ideas about the possible causes of something.
Falsification: the aim of testing hypotheses against the evidence is to try and prove
them wrong.
Use of empirical evidence: no hypothesis can be regarded as a scientific hypothesis
unless it is capable of being tested against empirical and measurable evidence.
Replication: testing is capable of being checked by other researchers who can repeat
the research.
Accumulation of evidence: scientific knowledge is cumulative. This means it builds up
over time, through constantly testing hypotheses, forming new hypotheses etc.
Prediction: through establishing cause and effect relationships, precise predictions of
what will happen in the same circumstances can be made.
Theory formation: if the hypothesis cannot be shown to be false and predictions appear
sound, then the hypothesis is probably true. This becomes part of scientific theory.
Scrutiny: a scientific theory will be scrutinised by other scientists and will stand only
until new evidence comes along to show it is false.
Popper’s principle of falsification
Popper suggests no hypothesis can ever finally be proven true, as there is always the
possibility of some future exception. However, a hypothesis can easily be proven false, as just
one observation to the contrary can disprove it.
Therefore scientists should try, not to prove their hypotheses true, but to falsify them by
looking for the exception. The more a hypothesis stands up to these attempts, the more likely
it is to be a scientific truth.
Objectivity and value freedom
Objectivity is the idea that the views of the researcher should not influence their research.
Objectivity is seen as an important part of the scientific process and the data collected are
seen as objective facts. Objectivity involves three main aspects:
1) Open mindedness by the researcher and a willingness to consider all possibilities and
evidence.
2) Value freedom: keeping personal opinions and values out of the research process.
3) Findings should be open to inspection and criticism by other researchers.
Positivism
Positivism is the view that the methods of the natural sciences can be applied to the study of
society. It also views human behaviour is a response to external forces, e.g. agencies of
socialisation, in much the same way as events in the natural world.
Comte, for example, argued applying scientific methods to the study of society, using
empirical evidence and objectivity, would show behaviour in society is influenced by cause
and effect in the same way as objects in the natural world.
Marx claimed his theories of class struggle, revolution and transition to communism were
based on cause and effect established by applying scientific methods to historical and
contemporary empirical data.
This also links with modernism as it argues understanding society can enable us to improve
it.
Positivists argue applying scientific methods to the study of society would enable an objective
and value free science of society.
Social facts
Positivists believe there are social facts that cause events in the social world. These are
things that are external to individuals and influence their behaviour, e.g. social institutions,
traditions
Durkheim said the aim of sociology should be the study of these social facts and that these
could be observed and measured quantitatively, e.g. social classes are social facts and have
measurable differences between them such as income and crime rates.
These social facts have a reality external to the individual and shape and limit behaviour.
The main features of positivism
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The view that human behaviour is a response to observable social facts, and can be
explained in terms of cause and effect relationships.
Direct observation and the use of quantitative methods of data collection should be
used to study society. Only those factors which are observable and measurable should
be studied. Feelings etc of individuals cannot be observed and therefore shouldn’t be
studied. Without quantitative data, sociology will lack evidence and be impossible to
repeat to check findings, establish causes of events and make predictions.
Research should focus on the search for the social causes of events in society and this
should be done via official statistics or surveys. For example, Durkheim did this in his
study into suicide in which he suggested the causes of this were differences in the
levels of integration into society and differences in moral regulation (control of the
actions of individuals by the values of society).
The focus of sociology is on the study of social institutions and the social structure as a
whole, not the individual. These shape and mould behaviour.
Can Sociology be Scientific?
Many sociologists argue scientific methods are inappropriate or insufficient for the study of
society. This is because there are fundamental differences between society and the natural
world as shown by the following points:
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The problem of prediction: human beings might behave differently in an experiment,
knowing they are being observed. People have free will and might react differently to
the same circumstances on different occasions.
Artificiality: sociology wants to study society in its normal state, not the in the artificial
conditions of a laboratory experiment.
Ethical issues: human beings might object to being studied.
Hawthorne effect: sociologists studying people may change the behaviour of those
being studied, simply by being present.
Validity: people may distort the truth, not cooperate etc. This may lead to invalid
evidence.
Empirical observation: not all social phenomena are observable etc, e.g. meanings and
motives people have for their behaviour.
Interpretivism
Interpretivists argue sociology cannot be a science in the way positivists see it. Features of
interpretivism include:
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People don’t simply respond to external forces. They interpret and give meaning to a
situation before responding.
It is impossible to predict human behaviour or establish simple cause and effect
relationships because people interpret and give meaning to a situation before
responding. This results in variable and changeable behaviour.
In order to understand and explain society, it is necessary to interpret the meanings
people give to situations. This is achieved by verstehen.
Meanings do not exist independently of people. There are not social facts as these are
social constructions, e.g. social class only exists because people give it meaning.
Objectivity doesn’t enable sociologists to understand society, and instead involvement
and empathy do because they enable us to understand the meanings which influence
people’s behaviour in society.