Download PRP Chapter 6 - punk rock psychology

Learning

Learning
 relatively permanent change
in an organism’s behavior due
to experience
Association
 We learn by association
 Our minds naturally connect events that occur in
sequence
 Aristotle 2000 years ago
 John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
 Associative Learning
 learning that two events occur together
 two stimuli
 a response and its consequences
Operant Conditioning
B.F. SKINNER: A FRESH APPRAISAL - Google Video
 Operant Conditioning
 type of learning in which behavior is strengthened
if followed by reinforcement or diminished if
followed by punishment
 Law of Effect
 Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by
favorable consequences become more likely, and
behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely
Operant Conditioning
 Respondent Behavior
 occurs as an automatic response to
stimulus
 behavior learned through classical
conditioning
 Operant Behavior
 operates (acts) on environment
 produces consequences
Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
 elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect
 developed behavioral technology
Operant Chamber
 Skinner Box
 chamber with a bar or key that an animal
manipulates to obtain a food or water
reinforcer
 contains devices to record responses
Operant Conditioning
 Learning
 a relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behavior due to experience
 Shaping
 operant conditioning procedure in which
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer
approximations of a desired goal
 Reinforcer
 Any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows
Operant Conditioning
Punishment
Principles of Reinforcement
 Reinforcer
 any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
 Primary Reinforcer
 innately reinforcing stimulus
 i.e., satisfies a biological need
 Conditioned Reinforcer
 stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its
association with primary reinforcer
 secondary reinforcer
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
 Cognitive Map
 mental representation of the layout of one’s
environment
 Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if
they have learned a cognitive map of it
 Latent Learning
 learning that occurs, but is not apparent until
there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
 Intrinsic Motivation
 desire to perform a behavior for its own
sake and to be effective
 Extrinsic Motivation
 desire to perform a behavior due to
promised rewards or threats of
punishments
Observational Learning
 Observational Learning
 learning by observing others
 Modeling
 process of observing and imitating a
specific behavior
Observational Learning
 Alfred Bandura’s Experiments
 Bobo doll
 we look and we learn
Bobo Experiment - Google Video
Observational Learning
 Prosocial Behavior
 positive, constructive, helpful
behavior
 opposite of antisocial behavior
Memory
 Memory
 persistence of learning over time
through the storage and retrieval of
information
 Flashbulb Memory
 a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event
Memory
 Memory as Information Processing
 similar to a computer
 write to file
 save to disk
 read from disk
 Encoding
 the processing of information into the memory
system
 i.e., extracting meaning
Memory
 Storage
 the retention of encoded information
over time
 Retrieval
 process of getting information out of
memory
Memory
 Sensory Memory
 the immediate, initial recording of
sensory information in the memory
system
 Working Memory
 focuses more on the processing of
briefly stored information
Memory
 Short-Term Memory
 activated memory that holds a few items
briefly
 look up a phone number, then quickly dial
before the information is forgotten
 Long-Term Memory
 the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
A Simplified Memory Model
Encoding
 Automatic Processing
 unconscious encoding of incidental information
 space
 time
 frequency
 well-learned information
 word meanings
 we can learn automatic processing
 reading backwards
Encoding
 Effortful Processing
 requires attention and conscious
effort
 Rehearsal
 conscious repetition of information
 to maintain it in consciousness
 to encode it for storage
Encoding
 Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
 TUV ZOF GEK WAV
 the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
 Spacing Effect
 distributed practice yields better longterm retention than massed practice
Encoding
 Imagery
 mental pictures
 a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially
when combined with semantic encoding
 Mnemonics
 memory aids
 especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
 Chunking
 organizing items into familiar, manageable units
 like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
 often occurs automatically
 use of acronyms
 HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
 ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice
Cream
Storage:
Retaining Information
 Iconic Memory
 a momentary sensory memory of visual
stimuli
 a photographic or picture image memory
lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
 Echoic Memory
 momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 How does storage work?
 Karl Lashley (1950)
 rats learn maze
 lesion cortex
 test memory
 Synaptic changes
 Long-term Potentiation
 increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation
 Strong emotions make for stronger memories
 some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Amnesia--the loss of memory
 Explicit Memory
 memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
 also called declarative memory
 hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps
process explicit memories for storage
 Implicit Memory
 retention independent of conscious recollection
 also called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term Memory
Subsystems
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out
 Recall
 measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learned earlier
 as on a fill-in-the blank test
 Recognition
 Measure of memory in which the person
has only to identify items previously
learned
 as on a multiple-choice test
Retrieval
 Relearning
 memory measure that assesses the
amount of time saved when
learning material a second time
 Priming
 activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory
Retrieval Cues
 Deja Vu (French)--already seen
 cues from the current situation may
subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience
 "I've experienced this before."
Retrieval Cues
 Mood-congruent Memory
 tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current mood
 memory, emotions, or moods serve as
retrieval cues
Types of LTM
• Types of long-term memories
– episodic memories
– semantic memories
– procedural memories
– emotional memories
The Biology of Forgetting
• Decay theory
– passage of time leads to deterioration of
memories
• Head injuries and retrograde amnesia
– Alzheimer’s disease neurotransmitter
acetylcholine levels
• Neurochemistry
– Changes in brain chemistry changes the nature of
memories
Experience and Forgetting
• Causes of Forgetting
– inadequate learning
– interference
– situational factors
– reconstructive process
Retroactive and Proactive Interference
• Retro=Having difficulty remembering something you
have already learned based on something you are
currently learning.
– Having a hard time recalling one of the Great Lakes while in the
process of learning the names of the oceans.
• Pro=Having difficulty remembering something you
are currently learning based on something you have
already learned
– Having a hard time recalling the name of an ocean because you are
confusing it with the name of one of the Great Lakes, which you have
already learned.
Cultural Influences
• Culture influences types of things that people
remember
• People more likely to remember information
about things that are relevant to their culture
Thinking
 Cognition
 mental activities associated with thinking, knowing,
remembering, and communicating
 Cognitive Psychologists
 study these mental activities
 concept formation
 problem solving
 decision making
 judgment formation
Thinking
 Concept
 mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas,
or people
 Prototype
 mental image or best example of a category
 matching new items to the prototype provides a quick
and easy method for including items in a category (as
when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical
bird, such as a robin)
Thinking
 Heuristic
 simple thinking strategy that often
allows us to make judgments and solve
problems efficiently
 usually speedier than algorithms
 more error-prone than algorithms
Thinking
 Insight
 sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a
problem
 contrasts with strategy-based solutions
 Confirmation Bias
 tendency to search for information that confirms one’s
preconceptions
 Fixation
 inability to see a problem from a new perspective
 impediment to problem solving
Thinking
 Functional Fixedness
 tendency to think of things only
in terms of their usual functions
 impediment to problem solving
Thinking
 Overconfidence
 tendency to be more confident than
correct
 tendency to overestimate the accuracy
of one’s beliefs and judgments
Thinking
 Belief Perseverance
 clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
Thinking
 Framing
 the way an issue is posed
 how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and
judgments
 Example: What is the best way to
market ground beef--as 25% fat or
75% lean?
Heuristics
 Representativeness Heuristic
 judging the likelihood of things in terms
of how well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes
 may lead one to ignore other relevant
information
Heuristics
 Availability Heuristic
 estimating the likelihood of events based
on their availability in memory
 if instances come readily to mind
(perhaps because of their vividness), we
presume such events are common
 Example: airplane crash
Group Differences
 Stereotype Threat
 A self-confirming concern that one will
be evaluated based on a negative
stereotype
Decision Making
• Decision making
– Problem solving type
– All of possible solutions known
– Involves identifying best solution
Compensatory Decision Making
• Compensatory decision making
– Rational decision making model
– Choices systematically evaluated on various
criteria
• Individual tendencies
– Use short-cuts or heuristics
– Attempt to decrease decision making complexity
Language
 Language
 our spoken, written, or gestured works
and the way we combine them to
communicate meaning
 Phoneme
 in a spoken language, the smallest
distinctive sound unit
Language
 Babbling Stage
 beginning at 3 to 4 months
 the stage of speech development in which the
infant spontaneously utters various sounds at
first unrelated to the household language
 One-Word Stage
 from about age 1 to 2
 the stage in speech development during which
a child speaks mostly in single words
Language
 Two-Word Stage
 beginning about age 2
 the stage in speech development during which
a child speaks in mostly two-word statements
 Telegraphic Speech
 early speech stage in which the child speaks like
a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and
verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words
Language
 New language
learning gets
harder with age
Language
 Linguistic Determinism
 Whorf”s hypothesis that language
determines the way we think
Nonhuman Thought and Language
• All animals communicate in some way
• Only humans can communicate verbally and in
complex ways
What is Intelligence?
 Intelligence
 ability to learn from experience,
solve problems, and use knowledge
to adapt to new situations
Are There Multiple
Intelligences?
 Social Intelligence
 the know-how involved in comprehending
social situations and managing oneself
successfully
 Emotional Intelligence
 ability to perceive, express, understand,
and regulate emotions
Intelligence and Creativity
 Creativity
 the ability to produce novel and valuable
ideas
 expertise
 imaginative thinking skills
 venturesome personality
 intrinsic motivation
 creative environment
Origins of Intelligence Testing
 Intelligence Test
 a method of assessing an individual’s
mental aptitudes and comparing them to
those of others, using numerical scores
The Normal Curve
Environment
• Many environment influences on intelligence
– Socioeconomic status
– Prenatal nutrition
– Level of environmental stimulation
What Makes A Good Test?
• Intelligence as well as other types of
psychological tests must have a high level of
reliability and validity.
Predictive Validity
• Predictive Validity
– IQ tests predict academic grades and obtaining
high-status occupations
– Emotional intelligence predict success in real
world
The Dynamics of Intelligence
 Mental Retardation
 a condition of limited mental ability
 indicated by an intelligence score below 70
 produces difficulty in adapting to the demands
of life
 varies from mild to profound
 Down Syndrome
 retardation and associated physical disorders
caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic
makeup
Environmental Influences
 The Plastic Brain
Brain
Genes
Experience