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Biological Diversity
The very stuff of Life
Punjab Biodiversity Board
Punjab State Council for Science & Technology, Chandigarh
United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization, New Delhi
Printed at Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A, New Connaught Place, Dehradun
Punjab Biodiversity Board (PBB)
Punjab State Council for Science & Technology (PSCST)
MGSIPA Complex, Sector 26, Chandigarh-160019
Tel. 0172-2792325 Fax 0172-2793143
Websites: www.pscst.com, www.punenvis.nic.in
United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
UNESCO House, B-5/29, Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi-110029
Tel. 91-11-26713000 Fax 91-11-26713001/2
Website: www.unesco.org/newdelhi
Authors
:
Neelima Jerath, Gurharminder Singh, Charan Kamal Singh &
Sanjivan Alkesh
Design & Photo credit
:
Charan Kamal Singh, ENVIS Centre
Citation
:
Jerath. N; Singh. G; Singh. C.K. & Alkesh. S (2007). Biological
Diversity:The Very Stuff of Life. Punjab Biodiversity Board, Punjab
State Council for Science & Technology, Chandigarh and UNESCO,
New Delhi
© PBB, PSCST & UNESCO, 2007
Foreword
T
he variety of life on earth is recognized as an essential part of our planet’s life support system.
However, the over-exploitation of nature through human pressure is causing the rapid and
irreversible loss of our biological diversity. Global changes, particularly climate change, have a
further negative impact.
The threat to biodiversity is closely linked to issues of sustainable and equitable development,
including poverty alleviation. The task of development is to provide all people with opportunities
for a better quality of life through access to resources. However, there are real concerns about
whether development will cause serious environmental damage that can itself adversely affect
quality of life; or whether environmental and natural resource constraints will limit development.
Since the early 1970s, UNESCO has recognized the role of humans in the ecosystem and has
manifested its concern through the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme. It recognizes that peace,
development and environmental protection are inter-dependent and indivisible, and that these
issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned. UNESCO works to provide sound,
reliable and timely information to people and governments to ensure comprehensive environmental
management, prevent over-exploitation of natural resources and promote environmentally sound
development.
This publication is part of the UNESCO initiative on “Minimizing Biodiversity Loss through Research
and Capacity-Building for Ecosystem Management”, which is being implemented through the
Punjab State Council for Science and Technology (PSCST). This initiative involves capacity building
of local stakeholders and communities dependent on biological resources for their livelihoods in
the biodiversity-rich areas (Shivaliks and Ramsar Sites) of the State of Punjab in northern India.
This publication also forms part of an educational kit developed jointly by UNESCO and PSCST
to present biodiversity issues to local populations, make them more aware of the value of their
natural biological resources and motivate them to take positive action to conserve them.
The livelihood needs of traditional societies living close to nature and natural resources are a
key element of sustainable development. I hope this publication will therefore be of interest to
conservation managers, researchers, governmental and non-governmental organizations, students
and teachers, and to all those committed to the management of biodiversity for sustainable
development.
Minja Yang
Director, UNESCO New Delhi Office
H
uman society is today faced with an ecological crisis of its own making. The planet is faced with
an accelerated rate of extinction of floral & fauna species, climate change, natural disasters
like droughts, storms and floods due to uncontrolled ecological destruction caused by perilous and
unregulated urbanization and industrialization and increased consumption of resources by the
increasing population and market driven societies. The consequences of this would not only alter
our lives in the immediate future but that of our future generations, if appropriate actions are not
initiated immediately.
Closer home in India shrinking cover of natural forests, rapidly falling groundwater levels, variations
in rain fall pattern, rising temperatures, receding glaciers, desertification, rapid loss of biodiversity
and falling agricultural productivity indicate the deteriorating health of our ecosystems.
Central to this malaise are two basic misconceptions - the belief that man can dominate over
nature, and that only economic growth can offer a better future. We need to keep in mind that
human society is a subset of the environment and its well being depends upon the well being of
our biosphere. Nature cannot be relegated to be as just a raw material on a free good and the
ecological complexities needs to be respected and understood and economies need to be built on
existing ecological, social and cultural realities.
This book is a part of a kit developed under a UNESCO sponsored project to build capacities of
local populations to promote environmental sustainability through biodiversity conservation. It is
designed to provide some basic information on biodiversity to facilitate a dialogue amongst diverse
groups within local communities and build their capacity to understand local biodiversity issues
and take informed decisions for promoting sustainable utilization of their biological resources.
The kit, including this book, is targeted to a broad range of stakeholders, representatives of
villages, panchayats, social society organizations, government functionaries, youth, teachers and
students so that a better stewardship emerges within local communities and they are motivated to
take positive action for conservation, protection and sustainable utilization of their resources and
associated traditional knowledge.
It is hoped that armed with some basic information, communities would be in a better position to
ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising out of these resources and knowledge.
Contents
Genetic Diversity ……………………….. 2
Species Diversity ……………………….. 3
Ecosystem Diversity ……………………….. 4
The value of Biodiversity ……………………….. 6
Distribution of Biodiversity ……………………….. 12
Status of Biodiversity in India ………………………… 14
Threats to Biodiversity …………………………. 15
Factors leading to Biodiversity loss ………………………… 16
Implication of Biodiversity loss …………………………. 18
Slowing Biodiversity losses ………………………… 18
Promoting Sustainable Development ………………………… 20
Convention of Biological Diversity …………………………. 23
The Biological Diversity Act ……………………………. 24
State Biodiversity Boards ……………………………….. 24
References ……………………………….. 26
A complex web of life has been evolving on the earth since 3.8 billion years. This web
is intricately linked and consist of millions of species inhabiting land, fresh water and
oceans. Together, they constitute our biological diversity - including every living thing
on the earth, from the minutest microbes to the tallest trees, the genes they contain and
the ecosystem of which they are a part.
The term ’Biodiversity’ was coined by E.O. Wilson in the late 1980s, who referred it
to as ‘the very stuff of life’. Ecologists define it as the totality of genes, species and
ecosystems in a region. For Geneticists, biodiversity also includes genome dynamics
that occurs at the DNA level and leads to evolution.
Biological diversity is generally described in terms of three hierarchical levels: genes,
species and ecosystems.
Genetic Diversity
Genetic Diversity includes the diversity of
the basic units of hereditary information
(genes) within a species, which are passed
down the generations. It is this type of
diversity which results in several varieties,
breeds or land races; e.g. more than 40000
varieties of rice or about twenty breeds
of cattle are known to have occurred in
India, each adapted to its own unique
environment. Some variations are easy
to see, for example, size or colour; some,
such as taste or flavour, can be perceived
by other senses; and some are invisible,
such as susceptibility to disease.
Biological Diversity
Maintaining genetic diversity within a group of plants or animals is extremely important
because it allows populations to adapt when changes occur in their environment. If
populations become too small, genetic diversity is lost. Populations that have little genetic
diversity are often more vulnerable to outbreaks of disease or pest infestations.
Species Diversity
The variety and abundance of
different types of organisms
which inhabit an area, each
distinct from another and
reproducing within its own
group, constitutes species
diversity. It includes all
organisms from amoebas
to elephants, or the giant
Sequoias, that currently exist
or have ever existed on our
planet. So far, approximately
1.4 million living species have
been identified.
These include about:
10,000 species of viruses and bacteria
120,000 species of non flowering plants
270,000 species of flowering plants
1,200,000 species of invertebrates
46,000 species of vertebrates (including about 5000 species
of mammals, 9,000 species of birds, 10,500 species of reptiles
and amphibians, 19,000 species of fish)
Biological Diversity
Certain species called ‘keystone species’, play a critical role in an ecosystem as they affect
abundance & health of many other species e.g. Corals in tropical coastal waters. Some
species called ‘Endemic species’, are found exclusively in a particular area, indicating the
existence of a unique habitats in a limited geographical area e.g. the Great One Horned
Rhinoceros is found only in India, Bhutan & Nepal. If these habitats are damaged it
almost certainly means that the endemic species will die. However, some species, such
as grass and sparrows, occur commonly around the world.
Species diversity is most commonly used for describing the biodiversity of countries.
Based on this a few countries have been identified as “mega diversity” countries. These
are: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia,
Mexico, Peru and Zaire (McNeely et.al., 1990).
Ecosystem Diversity
An ecosystem is ‘a set of life forms (plants, animals and micro-organisms) interacting
with one another and with the non-living elements (air, soil, water, minerals, etc.) of their
environment’. Ecosystem diversity is therefore the diversity of habitats (i.e. the place or
site where an organism or a population of organisms naturally occurs), which support
different life forms. Ecosystem diversity refers not only to the variety of species within
a particular ecosystem (the more the number of species within an ecosystem, more
diverse that ecosystem is considered to be) but also to the variety of ecosystems found
within a biogeographical area or a political boundary.
Major ecosystems in the world include:
Natural
Terrestrial
Forests
Grasslands
Tundra
Deserts
Manmade
Crop fields
Gardens
Aquatic
Marine
Oceans
Estuaries
Coastal areas
Freshwater
Rivers
Springs
Ponds, lakes & wetlands
Bogs
Biological Diversity
When we think about biodiversity, we generally take into account only wild plants and
animals. But a vast diversity exists amongst domesticated plants and animals also.
This is due to:

adaptation of crops & domesticated animals to different climatic and geographical
conditions e.g. a variety of rice grown in the hills could develop characteristics to
withstand cooler temperatures than a variety grown on hot and humid coastal areas
or a breed of cow or goat found in the Himalayas would be different than the breed
which can withstand the hot conditions of Rajasthan.

manipulation by humans to produce new varieties of crops and breeds of domesticated
animals for better productivity, taste, resistance of diseases, ability to withstand
floods & droughts, etc.
Further, we also need to take into account micro-organisms. A teaspoonful of soil could
contain billions of these microbes, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoons, etc.
which play an important role in the biogeochemical cycles.
Biodiversity also includes the vast array of human beliefs, knowledge, traditions, customs,
and languages that create the framework for society. This constitutes cultural diversity.
For example, religious beliefs can affect a community’s diet and the crops they choose to
grow (and how they grow them) or the animals they tend to rear, traditional knowledge
can determine how certain plants and animals or their parts are used for health care,
while social status within a group can affect a culture’s land-management practices.
Biological Diversity
The value of Biodiversity
All organisms have value, whether we can see their direct benefits or not; for example,
we do not like many insects in our homes or gardens but they are vital as they pollinate
flowers, recycle garbage and are food for many birds, reptiles and mammals.
Hence, Biodiversity forms the very foundation of human existence. For most developing
countries, perhaps the most important value of biodiversity is that it meets basic survival
needs of millions of people. Several traditional societies depend wholly or partially on
their surrounding natural resources to meet their daily needs of food, shelter, clothing,
medicines, etc. Besides these, biodiversity also provides livelihood opportunities and
satisfies spiritual and recreational needs of people. At the ecosystem level it renders
important services like, air & water purification, climate control, prevention of floods &
droughts, seed dispersal, pollination, etc. Besides, it also provides the conditions that
drive the processes which sustain global economies and are essential for the very survival
of species.
The benefits and services provided by biodiversity include:
Food Security
Biodiversity provides the vast majority of our food stuffs. More than ninety per cent
of the calories consumed worldwide come from about 80 plant species, out of which
about sixty per cent are provided by four major species i.e. wheat, corn, rice &

Biological Diversity
potatoes. There are however, a host of plant & animal products
which contribute towards meeting nutritional requirements of
people. Many of these foods are especially important when
agricultural supplies fall. Further, wild biodiversity provides
the genes required to modify crops which help maintain crop
productivity by offering resistance to pests & diseases. Higher
diversity in agricultural fields also acts as a Food Security
System.

Health Care
The World Health Organization estimates that eighty per cent
of people in the developing world rely on traditional medicines
derived mainly from plants. In Southeast Asia, for example,
traditional healers use about 6,500 different plant species to
treat various types of diseases of humans and cattle. Biodiversity
is also important for the ‘formal’ health
Traditional medicine in India depends upon its
sector. Approximately 110 out of 150
rich biological resources. The three traditional
drugs used in India are based on natural
systems of medicine include – Ayurveda, Sidha
sources. Of these, 74 per cent are
& Unani.
derived from plants. Microbes and animal
As per the Ayurvedic system, all plants on the
species have also contributed a range of
earth have medicinal properties. A mythological
medicines, including Penicillin (derived
story says that once Brahma, the creator, ordered
from the fungus Pencillium notatum) and
sage Jivaka to find a tree or a herb which had no
several drugs – including anesthetics–
medicinal value. Jivaka wandered over the earth
derived from the skin secretions of treefor eleven years but returned empty handed;
frog species. The medicinal importance
but much to his surprise, Bhahma recognized
him as a great physician. The study of Ayurveda
of biodiversity is particularly impressive
followed.
considering that only a tiny fraction of
earth’s species have been thoroughly
Adapted from: Jain, 1995 as cited in Bhatt, 1996
investigated for medicinal properties.
The investigative process is continually
turning up new pharmaceuticals of great
promise. A recent study of cone snails, for
example, has identified a painkiller that is
up to a thousand times more effective than
morphine, but without morphine’s addictive
properties.
Biological Diversity
Fuel, Timber, Fibre and other resources
Most of our clothes, houses and furniture are made from natural products. Further,
many non timber products like oils, resins, waxes, gums, etc. are obtained from
natural resources. The wool from sheep and cocoons of silk worms form the basis of
the valuable art of knitting and silk making industry. The extraction of rubber, resins,
catechu, toddy, etc. contributes to local economies.

Ecosystem Services
Biodiversity provides us with many life sustaining services which have a much higher
value than we generally realize, like:


Purification of air and water by recycling oxygen and carbon dioxide and filtering
harmful air pollutants or absorbing water pollutants. Also preventing eutrofication
of water bodies.

Carbon sequestering, helping to reduce global warming.

Recycling nutrients in the soil by breaking down organic matter especially due to
the activity of microbial species, thus maintaining soil quality.
Biological Diversity

Protecting landscapes against erosion & landslides through the binding action of
roots, thus preventing natural disasters. Also protecting lands from droughts
and floods.

Climate stabilization by giving off moisture (during transpiration), providing
shade and acting as wind breaks.

Pollination and seed dispersal

Controlling pests – most potential crop
pests are controlled by a variety of other
organisms including birds, reptiles, insects
& fungi.

Decomposition of wastes, especially from
industries and their detoxification through
the action of micro organisms.
Biological Diversity

Livelihoods
Biodiversity has great importance as a direct source of income and economic
development especially in traditional communities where several plants & animal
products are derived from the natural ecosystem and processed to form products
of economic value. It also serves as an income generating activity through nature
tourism. Worldwide ecotourism contributes to more than $500 billion every year.
10
Biological Diversity

Inspirational & cultural value
The religious and ethical beliefs of cultures around the world include respect for and
protection of nature. Some common examples in India where plants and animals
are revered include the ficus tree, the basil plant or the holy cow. Biodiversity
has, over the ages, inspired songs, stories, dances, poetry, crafts, myths, cuisines,
rituals and festivals. Further, nature is an unsurpassed source of relaxation, beauty,
rejuvenation and peace.
Biological Diversity
11
Distribution of biodiversity
It is important to realize that biodiversity is not evenly distributed on the earth. Its
distribution depends on climate, soils and the presence of other species. Some areas, like
the tropics are biologically very rich areas whereas others like deserts or snow covered
areas, harbour lesser number of plants and animals. Nevertheless species found in such
ecosystems are equally important as they are adapted to specific conditions. A major
regional community with its own type of climate, vegetation and animal life, is called a
‘biome’. Biomes are not sharply separated, but merge gradually into one another. This
overlap area is called an ‘ecotone’. India contains a great wealth of biological diversity
due to the wide variety of climatic and geographical conditions and is one of the centres
of mega diversity on the earth.
Most biologically rich areas in the world are known to lie around the equator. Areas with
very high biodiversity are known as ‘hotspots’. These hopspots were first identified by
Norman Myers, a British Environmental scientist. Out of 34 hotspots in the world, two
hotspots are in India - the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Source : Conservation International, 2005
12
Biological Diversity
Himalaya – The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the
world’s highest mountains, including Mt. Everest.
The mountains rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity
of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands
and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows
above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been
recorded at more than 6,000 meters. The hotspot
is home to important populations of numerous
large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers,
elephants, rhinos, and wild water buffalo.
Western Ghats – Faced with tremendous population
pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
have been dramatically impacted by the demands for
timber and agricultural land. Remaining forests of the
Western Ghats are heavily fragmented. The region is
home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles,
and amphibians, as well as important population of
Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the Endangered
lion-tailed macaque.
Biological Diversity
13
Status of Biodiversity in India
India supports about five per cent of the
world’s biodiversity on two per cent of the
earth’s surface. About 45,000 species of wild
plants representing approximately seven per
cent of the world’s flora and approximately
80,000 species of wild animals representing
about 6.4 per cent of the world’s fauna is
found in India. It is estimated that out of
15,000 flowering plants found in the country,
about 4,900 species are endemic (Ministry of
Environment & Forests, Govt. of India, 1994).
In contrast, Brazil, the richest nation w.r.t.
biodiversity, has 55,000 species of flowering
plants. Amongst Asia, China is the richest
with 30,000 flowering plants.
Animal diversity in India includes more than
370 mammals, 1200 birds, 425 reptiles, 200
amphibians, 2500 fish and more than 20,000
species of invertebrates. Out of these 38
mammals, 69 birds, 156 reptiles and 110
amphibians are endemic. However, Indonesia
is the world leader with respect to mammal
population as it harbours 515 species out of
which 165 are endemic. China and Brazil have
394 mammal species. Bird species are highest
in Colombia (1721 species), reptiles are
Mediterranean
5
Iraq
4
7 Meso America
Turkey
3
2
India
8
Andes 8b
8a
Vavilov’s Eight Centers of Crop Origin
Source : www.hort.purdue.edu
14
Biological Diversity
1 China
2a
SE Asia
Centres of Plant Biodiversity
In 1951 Russian Scientist N.Y. Vavilov, on the
basis of worldwide field surveys by his team,
classified the world’s crop producing regions into
eight centres of plant origin. Of these areas of
crop genetic diversity, India was central to what
he called the “Hindustan Centre of Origin”.
Vavilov’s terminology was well justified because
the Indian region is known to be endemic for
a considerable number of major crops. At least
166 species of crops (6.7 per cent of total crop
species in the world) and 320 species of their wild
relatives are believed to have originated here.
The Green Revolution in the late 1960s and
the 1970s enabled India to increase agricultural
productivity dramatically and made it selfsufficient in food. This was possible through the
use of high yielding varieties (HYVs) of crops.
But areas where HYVs were favoured have lost
many traditional low input demanding varieties
leading to loss of rich diversity. Punjab is one
such area. HYVs favour genetic uniformity
which makes the crop vulnerable to pests and
diseases. Indigenous varieties have been noted
to have a greater ability to withstand adverse
conditions like drought, floods, soil imbalances
and diseases.
Adapted from: Bhatt, 1996
highest in Mexico (717 species) closely
followed by Australia (700 species)
and maximum amphibian species are
recorded in Brazil (502 species) (NCSTC
– Network, 2007).
Within the country, Punjab fares well with
respect to birds as more than 400 species
have been recorded from the Shivalik
foothills and the state’s wetlands.
Domesticated biodiversity is also high in India. With 51
species of cereals and millets, 104 species of fruits, 27
species of spices and condiments, 55 species of vegetables
and pulses, 24 species of fibre crops, 12 species of oil
seeds, the country is considered to be one of the world’s
eight centres of origin of cultivated plants (Box).
Several hundred species of wild crop relatives are also
distributed all over the country, especially in the Eastern or Western Himalayas, Western
Ghats, Deccan Plateau and the Gangetic plains. Citrus indica the most primitive species
of citrus plants, is found in Tura hills of Meghalaya, where as the Deccan Plateau is home
to wild rice.
Amongst domesticated animals, the country harbours 26
breeds of cattle (including all the 8 breeds of buffaloes),
40 breeds of sheep, 20 breeds of goat, 8 breeds of
camels, 6 breeds of horses, 2 breeds of donkeys and
18 breeds of poultry. However, many of these are now
under threat.
Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction of some species and evolution of new ones is a natural process. In nature
these processes occur at a roughly equal rate. However, off-late, the rate of extinction
has outstripped the rate of evolution of new species. This indeed is a cause of concern.
In India alone, 247 species of plants and 313 species of wild animals have been identified
under various threat categories by IUCN (Box). One mammal (Cheetah) and one bird
species (Pink headed duck) and at least twenty species of higher plants are also reported
to be extinct from India (Bhat & Deshbandhu, 1994).
Threatened Species in India
Group
Number of species
Animals
313 (CR:44, EN:88, VU:181)
Mammals
89
Birds
75
Reptiles
25
Amphibians
63
Fishes
39
Molluscs
2
Other Invertebrates
20
Plants
247 (CR:45, EN:113, VU:89)
Total
560
Source: 2007 IUCN Red List, www.iucnredlist.org
CR: Critical (species facing extremely high risk of extinction)
EN: Endangered (species considered to be facing very high risk of extinction)
Vu: Vulnerable (species considered to be facing high risk of extinction)
Biological Diversity
15
Further, genetic diversity within species is
also being eroded. This trend is especially
alarming from an agricultural perspective.
Since 1900, about three-quarters of the
genetic diversity of cultivated crops have
disappeared, together with nearly half of
the gene pool of wild relatives of domestic
animals.
Factors leading to Biodiversity Loss
The major causes of biodiversity loss include
loss of natural habitats, over use of natural
resources, pollution, changing climate and
invasive species.
Lost & Found
The Double banded Courser (Cursorius
bitorquatus) was sighted by T.C. Jerdon in
c.1848 in the Eastern Ghats of India. There is
also a record of the bird’s sighting in 1871 in the
Godavri River valley in Northern Andhra Pradesh.
The last authentic sighting was in 1900 in Pennar
river valley. Subsequent bird surveys conducted
from 1929 to 1931 and during 1933-34 covering
the range of habitat of the bird failed to spot
it. Subsequently, special explorations were
organized by Bombay Natural History Society in
1975 & 1976 in collaboration with Smithsonian
Institution, USA and Worldwide Fund – India in
the area but the bird remained elusive. This led
several ornithologists to believe that the bird
had become extinct. However, in January, 1976
the bird was re-sighted in Lanka Malia Hills in
Pennar river valley in Southern Andhra Pradesh
by a team of BNHS and US Fish & Wildlife Service
Scientists.
Habitats all over the world are changing
because of disturbances created by humans like,
cutting of forests, intensive industrialization,
filling of wetlands, building new settlements,
mining, etc. These actions change landscapes,
Adapted from : Bharat Bhushan, 1986
alter natural flow of water and affect species
composition.
Many
landscapes get eroded. Others get fragmented into smaller
patches, isolating many species resulting in their inbreeding, loss
of genetic diversity and local extinction. In India, fragmentation
of forests has led to decline in elephant population. Further,
some plants and species are used at a greater rate than at
which they can replace themselves. This can lead to depletion
of such species. Examples include over-exploitation of Rauvolfia
serpentina and Diosoria deltoidea (yam) for extraction of
reserpine and diosgenin drugs used as tranquilizers and for
manufacture of contraceptive pills, respectively.
Scientific studies also indicate that the global climate is changing
with increase in industrialization and burning of fossil fuel. This
results in an increase in carbon dioxide and other gases in the
atmosphere leading to rise in global temperatures and change
in natural climate, causing floods in certain areas and droughts
in others. Effluents from industries and municipalities and
16
Biological Diversity
run off seeping into rivers, lakes & coastal environments negatively affect the aquatic
ecosystems. Chemical pesticides in the fields harm non-target wild insect pollinators.
The pollution in the environment can also kill organisms or interfere with their vital life
processes like, reproduction, thus affecting their future population. Studies conducted
in the highly polluted Buddha Nallah in Punjab, a rivulet joining with river Satluj near the
industrial city of Ludhiana, indicates loss of reproductive capacity in fishes occurring in
about 40 km stretch of the rivulet.
Further, people are also responsible for introducing exotic (non native) species in an area
accidentally or purposefully. These species, generally, do not have their natural predators
to keep populations in check. Hence, they affect the local species and invade large tracts
of land and water. The weed Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress grass or gajarbootie)
was introduced accidentally with wheat seeds imported from Mexico in the sixties. It is a
highly invasive weed of Punjab affecting native flora & fauna. Similar is the case of weed
Lantana camara which has invaded large forest tracts in the Shivaliks replacing local
herb flora. Similarly, the weed Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth or pani di booti) was
brought to India as an ornamental plant but has become a major aquatic weed invading
and blocking water bodies.
Further, economic systems and policies which fail to value the environment or address
only short term developmental needs, breakdown of customary laws within communities,
certain agricultural and forestry practices, unsustainable natural resource consumption,
inequities in ownership, management & flow of benefits for use of biological resources
and global trading systems which favour monocultures (especially of crops & fruits)
also contribute towards biodiversity loss. The loss of biodiversity is affecting the natural
ecosystems of the world and the valuable services provided by them. It is difficult to
quantify these impacts but it is estimated that many varieties of food, medicines, timber,
fuel and other resources will be lost for ever and many ecosystem services like, climate
regulation, flood & drought control, nutrient recycling, clean air & water and pollination
will be affected. This can have unforeseen affects on our resources and economy and can
severely limit quality of life.
Biological Diversity
17
Implications of Biodiversity Loss
The continuous loss of biodiversity can greatly affect
human society, as well as, ecosystems and their
valuable services. It is, however, difficult to quantify
these impacts. Biodiversity loss will not only limit our
quality of life but would also undermine our potential
to feed, clothe & shelter our future generations. It
is not possible to accurately account for the cost
of loosing yet undiscovered species which could be
sources of new varieties of foods, medicines and
other resources. Furthermore, the loss of ecosystem
services such as pollination, clean air & water, climate
regulation, drought and flood control and nutrient
recycling will not only affect humans but have an
adverse impact on all species of plants & animals.
We also need to factor the cause of unknown ripple
affect, which a change in one species or ecosystem,
could have on other species and ecosystems on the
planet. Loss of biodiversity can also have unforeseen
affects on jobs and economy, e.g. loss of fish in
aquatic ecosystems could affect fishing communities all over the world.
Further, there is no way to estimate losses of emotional, psychological and spiritual well
being which could result from degraded biologically rich areas.
Slowing biodiversity losses
If we wish to conserve our biological diversity and slow down its loss, we need to
understand how nature works and our role in it. Studying biodiversity will help people
understand the inter-linkages between biological resources and human well being and
help them take best decisions regarding challenges associated with resource conservation
and development. It is however, important to realize that conservation does not mean
a moratorium to use; rather it promotes sustainable utilization. This is possible only if
we are aware of our existing resources with respect to our requirements and aspirations
and are willing to shun consumerism or forego certain short term economic interests for
long term benefits.
One way of slowing down biodiversity losses is to establish and protect specific areas with
the goal of conserving both, species and natural ecosystems. There are 14 biosphere
reserves, 94 National Parks, 502 sanctuaries, 2 Conservation Reserves under Protected
18
Biological Diversity
Biodiversity Conservation – a traditional approach
People in India, like people in other traditional societies
throughout the world, have been conserving local
biological resources since times immemorial. This is
because our forefathers, who used local biodiversity
and realized its importance in their lives, have ensured
its survival by incorporating it in religion, rituals and
customs. These traditions are responsible for the
presence of thousands of peepal (Ficus religiosa) and
banyan (Ficus benghalensis) trees all over the country
and the persistence of monkeys (associated with the
Hindu God, Hanuman) and peacocks (associated with
Lord Krishna) in our villages & towns. The Bishnois
are another important community with strong
conservation tenets which practice a religion where conservation plays a key role. Two of the main tenets
include ban on felling of any green tree and on the killing of any bird or animal. Today even after five
centuries, the community follows these tenets and their villages stand out like oasis in the desert where
even the shy wild black buck can be seen roaming freely.
In Punjab, trees have been associated with Gurudwaras
also. Researchers have documented 17 native tree
species, associated with 48 sikh shrines. These trees
were invariably the sites selected as halting places
by the Sikh Gurus and their disciples for resting and
preaching during their missionary tours. After their
departure from the site, the trees were remembered
for their association with the visit of the guru and later
commemorated with construction of shrines. The most
important of such sites is the ‘Dukh Bhanjani Beri’ at
Baba Budha Ber Sahib (Zizyphus jujuba) at the Golden
Temple at Amritsar. Other important Gurudwaras
are Gurudwara Bohr Sahib (Ficus bengalensis) at
Anandpur Sahib, Distt. Ropar; Gurudwara Imli Sahib (Tamarind) at Kiri Afgana, Chamkaur Sahib, Ropar;
Gurudwara Kalp Vriksh (Mitragina parvifolia) at Village Attari, Ropar; Gurudwara Pipli Sahib (Ficus religiosa)
at Amritsar; Gurudwara Jand Sahib (Prosopis spicigera) at Gumti Kalan, Bathinda; Gurudwara Phalahi
Sahib (Acacia modesta) at Lakhisar, Bathinda; Gurudwara Garna Sahib (Capparis horrida) at Bodal, Dasuya,
Hoshiarpur; Gurdwara Harian Velan Sahib at Bajraur, Hoshiarpur; Gurudwara Tahli Sahib (Shisham) at
Munak Kalan, Nawanshahar; Gurudwara Nim Sahib (margossa) at Akar, Patiala; Gurudwara Reru Sahib
(Mimasa leucophioea) at Rampur, Ludhiana; Gurudwara Karir Sahib (Capparis aphylla) at Littar, Ludhiana
and Gurudwara Ber Sahib (Zizphu jujuba) at Sultanpur Lodhi, Kapurthala. Outside Punjab, Gurudwaras
at Leh and Uttaranchal are also associated with Datun (Margossa) & Ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) trees,
respectively.
Adapted from: A Tryst with Trees by Jaspal, 2007
Biological Diversity
19
Area Network in the country besides additional 24 Bird protected areas (IISc, 2007).
Efforts have also been made to protect certain key stone species through special projects
like, Project Tiger, Project Elephant, etc.
In the state of Punjab, though only 6.5% area is under forest cover, however, 11 areas
have been identified under Protected Area Network. These include 7 wildlife sanctuaries,
one conservation reserve, 3 birs (areas protected by erstwhile kings) and 4 rakhs (areas
protected traditionally through community participation).
Conservation efforts, however, must respect the rights of indigenous people who live
close to such areas and often draw their sustenance from resources in such areas.
Ecological restoration is another process of bringing the degraded ecosystems back to their
original state. This involves recolonization of native plant and animal species and re-establishment
of ecosystem processes. Several such efforts are being made throughout the country.
Botanical Gardens and Zoos also play an important role in conserving endangered
plant and animal species besides serving as educational and recreational areas. Many
governments, non government organizations and scientists are also working with local
inhabitants and private entrepreneurs to develop management strategies for biodiversity
preservation. These strategies are aimed to ensure that the development projects are
consistent with conservation objectives, thus minimizing environmental damage. The
involvement of indigenous people and other key stakeholders in devising such strategies
is a key to sustainable utilization of these resources.
Creating appropriate environmental awareness and providing scientifically based
information to citizen is also equally important to motivate them to protect the environment
and spur them towards positive action.
Promoting Sustainable Development
Sustainable development has been
defined as the ability to meet the needs of
today’s generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet
their needs. Sustainable living does not
deplete natural resources or biodiversity,
rather it promotes its conservation.
It succeeds only when governments,
NGOs, scientists, industry and citizen
20
Biological Diversity
use their knowledge of resilience and vulnerabilities of populations and ecosystems to
meet economic needs, deal effectively with demands for resources and promote equitable
benefit sharing.
Over the years a series of national and
international treaties and conventions
have been initiated and laws enacted to
protect biodiversity. Organizations like,
the World Conservation Union (IUCN),
the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), Global Environment Facility
(GEF), United Nations Conference on
Trade & Development (UNCTAD), World
Bank, Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna & flora (CITES), United Nations Educational,
Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Secretariat of DIVERSITAS, etc. are
involved in conserving the planet’s natural resources. The Man & Biosphere program
of UNESCO was initiated in 1971 and has resulted in the study of major ecosystems
and bioclimatic zones in the world and conservation of representative areas in form of
Biosphere Reserves. Another important initiative is the ‘The Convention on Biological
Diversity’ which has been ratified by about 180 countries of the world.
Man & Biosphere (MAB) Program
In 1968, UNESCO organized the ‘Biosphere Conference’ at Paris which recommended the
setting up of an interdisciplinary international research program on environment, with
focus on developing countries. As a result the ‘Man & Biosphere (MAB)’ Program was
launched in 1971 to study the structure, functions and dynamics of various ecosystems
and bioclimatic zones (like tropical, subtropical & temperate forest systems, grasslands,
semiarid and arid areas, wetlands, coastal areas, islands and mountains) and humanenvironment inter-relationships (like effects of major engineering works, urban systems,
pollution, interaction between environment & human population, pest management and
fertilizer use, conservation of natural genetic materials, etc.). With better understanding
of interactions within the ecosystems, the program switched over from a biocentric to
an anthropocentric approach. It was realized through such studies that people were an
integral part of the environment and their participation in natural resource management
was crucial to protect all ecosystems. This also called for respecting the traditional wisdom
of local communities in protecting and sustainably utilizing their natural resources. A
natural consequence to this realization was introduction of the concept of Biosphere
Reserves. These Biosphere Reserves are now a world wide network and form the backbone
of MAB activities. The Biosphere Reserve Conference held in Seville, Spain in 1995 dwelt
Biological Diversity
21
on Strategies and statutory framework for Biosphere Reserves. It emphasized on their
role in conservation of biodiversity, its research & monitoring and in providing improved
quality of life for local communities living in and around such areas. The Biosphere
Reserve program, therefore, calls for establishing core zones, buffer zones and transition
zones in each ecosystem with appropriate linkages, empowerment and participation
of traditional societies for their management and protection by adopting sustainable
livelihood practices.
There are current 507 sites designated by UNESCO under the World Network of Biosphere
Reserves in 108 countries. India has four UNESCO designated Biosphere Reserves and 10
similarly managed National Biosphere Reserves. The transition zones from the Shivalik
ranges to mid Himalayan ranges in north western Himalayan region, extending from
Punjab to parts of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir (especially the area of the
Dhars) is still unrepresented.
List of Biosphere Reserves in India
S.No. Name
District
State
1
Anupur, Dindori & Bilaspur Madhya Pradesh &
Achanakmar-Amarkantak Chhattishgarh
2
Agasthyamalai -
Kerala
3
Dehang-Debang Siang & Debang Valley Arunachal Pradesh
4
Dibru-Saikhowa Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Assam
5
Great Nicobar Southern most Island of Andaman and Nicobar
Andaman and Nicobar 6
Indian part of Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
Gulf of Mannar* 7
Khangchenjunga Khangchendzonga Hills Sikkim
8
Manas Part of Kokrajhar, Assam
Bongaigaon, Barpeta,
Nalbari, Kamprup and
Darang 9
Chamoli, Almora, and Nanda Devi* Uttarakhand
Pithoragarh, 10
Part of Wayanad, Bandipur, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and
and Nagarhole, Nilambur, Karnataka
Silent Valley and
Nilgiri* Siruvani Hills 11
Nokrek Part of Garo Hills Meghalaya
12
Pachmarhi Betul, Hoshangabad and
Madhya Pradesh
Chindwara 13
Simlipal -
Orissa
14
Sunderbans* -
West Bengal
*UNESCO designated sites
Source: en.wikipedia.org. Biosphere Reserves of India
22
Biological Diversity
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Much of the world’s biological wealth in concentrated in developing countries in the
tropical areas. On the other hand, developed countries which possess financial & technical
capabilities to add value to these resources and derive considerable economic benefits
out of these endeavours, lie in colder latitudes. Not surprisingly, tropical countries like
India, Malaysia & Brazil and those in Africa, are keen to ensure that they too get a fair
share in the profits based on the use of their rich biological resources and traditional
knowledge associated with their utilization. The Convention on Biological Diversity,
for the first time, recognizes that all countries have a sovereign right on their natural
resources. Thus, now if a new product is developed based on a resource obtained from
a developing country, this can be done only through prior informed consent on the basis
of an agreement which will include benefit sharing with the country of origin.
The Convention on Biological Diversity
further aims to:

Conserve biological diversity

Promote
sustainable
biological resources
use
of
Promote fair & equitable sharing of
benefits arising from use of genetic
resources
It encourages governments from various
countries to conserve their ecosystems
and natural habitats, identify and monitor
biodiversity, promote technical & scientific
cooperation, create public awareness and
provide incentives to developing
countries for conserving their
natural
resources.
Further,
the Convention has another
important provision. The usual
Intellectual Property Rights
regime (as recognized by the
World
Trade
Organization)
guarantees economic benefits
only to patent holders and not to holders
of any publicly held knowledge which
may have served as the foundation for
the patented invention.

The Story of SarpgandhA
Sarpgandha (Rauvolfia serpentina) is a medicinal
plant found in India which is traditionally used for
treatment of snake bite, hypertension, schizophrenia
and stomach disorders. A few decades ago in the pre
CBD era a German Pharmaceutical Company realized
that the plant was the source of an alkaloid, reserpine,
which was useful in treatment of blood pressure, and
patented the product. This development led to rapid,
unchecked exploitation of wild populations of the plant.
Subsequently, India banned the export of this plant,
prompting the production of a synthetic substitute by
the Pharmaceutical Industry. In the whole process India
gained very little, other than some low value for raw
plant material for a few years before it was exhausted
due
to
over-exploitation.
Under the CBD provisions, the
Sarpgandha story will not be
repeated. However, we will not
reap the full benefits of the
provisions of the Convention
on Biological Diversity, unless
initiatives to record traditional
knowledge, promote indigenous
research and develop capabilities for good management
of information are taken up. One such initiative in this
direction is the development of Traditional Knowledge
Digital Library (TKDL). Another initiative is the preparation
of People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs).
Biological Diversity
23
However, the Convention on Biological Diversity provides for respecting traditional
knowledge of local communities and sharing with them the benefits flowing out of
commercial utilization of such knowledge. An important voluntary application of this
provision has occurred in case of the tonic ‘Jeevani’, developed by scientists of Tropical
Botanical Garden & Research Institute, Kerala where scientists learnt from two members
of Kani tribal group that consuming the leaves of Trichopus zeylanicus, a commonly
found herb in the forest, helped prevent fatigue. The institute developed the tonic with
the help of a pharmaceutical company and shared the royalty with the local population.
In contrast, a controversy arose due to granting of a patent by US Patent Office to a
lotion made from turmeric for its wound healing properties. Since patents can be granted
only for products and processes which are novel (new) and the wound healing properties
of turmeric are in public knowledge in India since millennia, this patent was got revoked
by the Indian government through the Council for Scientific & Industrial Research.
The Biological Diversity Act
Taking cognizance of the provisions of the Convention of Biological Diversity, and to deal
with extensive pressure on our biological resources, India has enacted the Biological
Diversity Act, 2002.
The Act provides for conservation of biodiversity, besides facilitating access to biological
resources in a sustainable manner. The Act is implemented through the National
Biodiversity Authority at the Central Government level, the State Biodiversity Boards at
the state government level and the Biodiversity Management Committees at the village/
town level.
The National Biodiversity Authority is responsible for regulating access to biological
diversity by foreigners and NRIs and ensures that the commercial benefit and intellectual
property of the country is equitably shared amongst all stakeholders, especially local
communities. The Act also provides for establishment of State Biodiversity Boards to
facilitate implementation.
Other major initiatives at the national level include, National Conservation Strategies &
National and State Biodiversity Strategies & Action Plans, National Environment Policy
and several other environmental laws.
State Biodiversity Boards
The State Biodiversity Boards are envisioned as statutory bodies under the Biological
Diversity Act to facilitate conservation of biodiversity at the state level and to regulate
commercial utilization of biological resources by industrial and commercial entities so that
24
Biological Diversity
local communities get an adequate
share of economic benefit arising
from the use of these resources.
Commercial bodies harvesting natural
resources from an area for economic
benefit would be required to take
clearance from the State Biodiversity
Board and deposit a collection fee. The
State Biodiversity Boards are required
to set up Biodiversity Management
Committees at village & town
level to ensure public participation
in biodiversity conservation and
sustainable
utilization
through
decentralized planning.
The
Biodiversity
Management
Committees would keep a record of the
natural resources and their utilization
in areas within their jurisdiction. They
would comprise representatives of the
local body, school teachers, cultivators,
medical practitioners and all other
stakeholders whose livelihood depends
upon local biological resources,
and would play an important role
in implementation of the Biological
Diversity Act at the field level. The
Biodiversity Management Committees
are also entrusted to prepare Peoples’
Biodiversity Registers. Information
about the local flora & fauna (both,
wild & domesticated), its use and
associated traditional knowledge will
be recorded in these registers.
This will ensure that the natural
resources of our country are protected
with the active participation of
people.
The making of a village PBR (Peoples’ Biodiversity
Register)
Peoples’ Biodiversity Registers is a documentary record
of the available bioresources in an area found both, in
the farms and in the wild, and the traditional knowledge
associated with these resources like, how plants & animals
or their parts are used for food, medicine, livelihoods or
other uses by people, method of their cultivation/rearing
and sustainable harvesting and their role in local customs,
rituals & beliefs.
On April 9, 1997, in the small village of Puttuvam in Kerala,
an old farmer handed over a register to a young child
containing all such information pertaining to the village.
The child in turn, handed it over to the village Sarpanch
(head) for safe custody in the interest of the community and
future generations. This register had been prepared by the
educated people in the village who organized exhibitions
of all plants & domesticated animals in/around their village
& surveyed fields and nearby ponds & forest areas and
made records of how various resources were used locally.
They sought information from the village elders, craftsmen,
fishermen and folk artists on traditional crops, land races
& the uses of many plants and animals and even honoured
the farmers & women who had protected traditional
varieties by cultivating them. They sought expert help
wherever required but did all the recording themselves to
ensure that nothing was left out. As a result, besides many
cultivars of crops especially rice, they recorded 366 species
of plants, 32 spp. of mangroves, 93 spp. of birds, 14 wild
mammals and 30 kinds of fish, molluscs, etc. from a small
area. They recorded all prevalent common names, as well
as, scientific names where possible. Rare plants and animals
were also recorded. Care was, however, taken to record
specific information in a way that it could not be misused.
A declaration of ownership was then made to prevent
outsiders from filing patents from their bioresources. This
register is expected to prevent biopiracy and help locals to
ensure benefit sharing if any of it is commercially utilized.
Every village can make such registers and protect its
biodiversity from biopiracy. This is suggested under the
Biological Diversity Act also. All we need are informed
enthusiastic volunteers.
(Adapted from “An Indian village buck GATT over control of
Genetic resources’ by C. Alvares in Third World Resurgence.
Issue 84, 1997)
Biological Diversity
25
Biological Diversity
The very stuff of Life
Punjab Biodiversity Board
Punjab State Council for Science & Technology, Chandigarh
United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization, New Delhi
Printed at Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A, New Connaught Place, Dehradun