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C HAPTER
5
Between the Wars and
World War Two
Chapter Outline
5.1
W ILSON D ESIRES "A J UST P EACE "
5.2
R ISE OF FASCISM AND TOTALITARIANISM IN E UROPE
5.3
I SOLATIONISM
5.4
R OOSEVELT ’ S R ESPONSE TO A T ROUBLED W ORLD
5.5
ATTACK ON P EARL H ARBOR P ROPELS THE U NITED S TATES I NTO W ORLD
WAR II
5.6
C OUNTRIES I NVOLVED IN W ORLD WAR II AND M AJOR T HEATERS OF W ORLD
WAR II
5.7
WARTIME S TRATEGY
5.8
I NDIVIDUAL S ACRIFICES W ERE M ADE B Y M ANY
5.9
I MPORTANT I NDIVIDUALS OF W ORLD WAR II
5.10
J APANESE A MERICANS O UTCASTED IN WAKE OF P EARL H ARBOR
5.11
W OMEN A NSWER THE C ALL AT H OME AND A BROAD
5.12
W ORLD WAR II AND A FRICAN A MERICANS
5.13
W ORLD WAR II AT H OME
5.14
M AJOR D EVELOPMENTS IN S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY D URING WWII
5.15
T ENNESSEE ’ S I MPACT ON W ORLD WAR II
5.16
M ANHATTAN P ROJECT
5.17
A MERICAN R ESPONSE TO THE H OLOCAUST
5.18
YALTA AND P OTSDAM C ONFERENCES
5.19
F ORMATION OF THE U NITED N ATIONS AND C ORDELL H ULL
5.20
R EFERENCES
Students analyze the inter-war years and America’s participation in World War II.
US.54 ... Examine the impact of American actions in foreign policy in the 1920’s, including the refusal to join the
League of Nations, the Washington Disarmament Conference, and the Kellogg Brand Pact. (H, P)
US.55 ... Gather relevant information from multiple sources to explain the reasons for and consequences of American
actions in foreign policy during the 1930’s, including the Hoover Stimson Note, the Johnson Debt Default Act, and
the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1937, and 1939. (H, P)
US.56 ... Analyze the reasons for and consequences of the rise of fascism and totalitarianism in Europe during the
1930’s, including the actions of Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin. (H, P)
US.57 ... Examine President Roosevelt’s response to the rise of totalitarianism, including the Quarantine Speech,
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
the Four Freedoms Speech, the Atlantic Charter, and Lend-Lease. (E, P)
US.58 ... Explain the reasons for American entry into World War II, including the attack on Pearl Harbor. (H, P)
US.59 ... Identify and locate on a map the Allied and Axis countries and the major theatres of the war. (G)
US.60 ... Explain United States and Allied wartime strategy and major events of the war, including the Bataan Death
March, Midway, “island hopping,” Iwo Jima, Okinawa, invasion of North Africa and Italy, D-Day, and the Battle of
the Bulge. (C, G, H, P)
US.61 ... Identify the roles and sacrifices of individual American soldiers, as well as the unique contributions of
special fighting forces such as the Tuskegee Airmen, the 442nd Regimental Combat team, the 101
st Airborne, and the Navajo Code Talkers. (C, H)
US.62 ... Identify the roles played and significant actions of the following individuals in World War II: (H, P)
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Franklin Roosevelt
Winston Churchill
Joseph Stalin
Harry Truman
Adolph Hitler
Benito Mussolini
Hideki Tōjō
Dwight Eisenhower
George C. Marshall
Douglas MacArthur
US.63 ... Describe the constitutional issues and impact of events on the United States home front, including the
internment of Japanese Americans (Fred Korematsu v. United States of America). (C, P)
US.64 ... Examine and explain the entry of large numbers of women into the workforce during World War II and
its subsequent impact on American society (such as at Avco in Tennessee), as well as the service of women in the
armed forces, including Cornelia Fort. (C, E, P, TN)
US.65 ... Examine the impact of World War II on economic and social conditions for African Americans, including
the Fair Employment Practices Committee, the service of African Americans in the armed forces and the work force,
and the eventual integration of the armed forces by President Truman. (C, E, H, P)
U S.66 ... Describe the war’s impact on the home front, including rationing, bond drives, movement to cities and
industrial centers, and the Bracero program. (C, E, G, H)
US.67 ... Describe the major developments in aviation, weaponry, communication, and medicine (penicillin), and
the war’s impact on the location of American industry and use of resources. (E, G)
US.68 ... Explain the importance of the establishment and the impact of the Fort Campbell base, Oak Ridge nuclear
facilities, TVA, Alcoa influences, and Camp Forrest as a POW center. (E, G, P, TN)
US.69 ... Write an opinion piece evaluating the Manhattan Project, including the rationale for using the atomic bomb
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to end the war. (H)
US.70 ... Examine the American reaction and response to the Holocaust. (C, H, P)
US.71 ... Explain major outcomes of the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences. (G, H, P)
US.72 ... Identify and explain the reasons for the founding of the United Nations, including the role of Cordell Hull.
(P, H, TN)
Primary Documents and Supporting Texts to Read: excerpts from the Announcement of Dropping the Atomic
Bomb, Harry Truman; Letter to President Franklin Roosevelt, Albert Einstein
Primary Documents and Supporting Texts to Consider: excerpts from “Quarantine Speech,” Franklin Roosevelt;
“Four Freedoms” speech, Franklin Roosevelt; Announcement of War with Japan, 1941, Franklin Roosevelt.
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5.1 Wilson Desires "A Just Peace"
Wilson Desires "A Just Peace"
As the war drew to a close, Woodrow Wilson set forth his plan for a "just peace." Wilson believed that fundamental
flaws in international relations created an unhealthy climate that led inexorably to the World War. His Fourteen Points
outlined his vision for a safer world. Wilson called for an end to secret diplomacy, a reduction of armaments, and
freedom of the seas. He claimed that reductions to trade barriers, fair adjustment of colonies, and respect for national
self-determination would reduce economic and nationalist sentiments that lead to war. Finally, Wilson proposed an
international organization comprising representatives of all the world’s nations that would serve as a forum against
allowing any conflict to escalate. Unfortunately, Wilson could not impose his world view on the victorious Allied
Powers. When they met in Paris to hammer out the terms of the peace, the European leaders had other ideas.
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE
No provisions were made to end secret diplomacy or preserve freedom of the seas. Wilson did gain approval for his
proposal for a League of Nations. Dismayed by the overall results, but hopeful that a strong League could prevent
future wars, he returned to present the Treaty of Versailles to the United States Senate.
FIGURE 5.1
Council of Four at the WWI Paris peace
conference, May 27, 1919 (L - R)
Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Great
Britain) Premier Vittorio Orlando, Italy,
French Premier Georges Clemenceau,
President Woodrow Wilson
LEAGUE OF NATIONS FAILS
Unfortunately for Wilson, he was met with stiff opposition. The Republican leader of the Senate, Henry Cabot
Lodge, was very suspicious of Wilson and his treaty. Article X of the League of Nations required the United States
to respect the territorial integrity of member states. Although there was no requirement compelling an American
declaration of war, the United States might be bound to impose an economic embargo or to sever diplomatic relations.
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Lodge viewed the League as a supranational government that would limit the power of the American government
from determining its own affairs. Others believed the League was the sort of entangling alliance the United States
had avoided since George Washington’s Farewell Address. Lodge sabotaged the League covenant by declaring the
United States exempt from Article X. He attached reservations, or amendments, to the treaty to this effect. Wilson,
bedridden from a debilitating stroke, was unable to accept these changes. He asked Senate Democrats to vote against
the Treaty of Versailles unless the Lodge reservations were dropped. Neither side budged, and the treaty went down
to defeat.
Why did the United States fail to ratify the Versailles Treaty and join the League of Nations? Personal enmity between Wilson and Lodge played a part. Wilson might have prudently invited a prominent Republican to accompany
him to Paris to help ensure its later passage. Wilson’s fading health eliminated the possibility of making a strong
personal appeal on behalf of the treaty. Ethnic groups in the United States helped its defeat. German Americans felt
their fatherland was being treated too harshly. Italian Americans felt more territory should have been awarded to
Italy. Irish Americans criticized the treaty for failing to address the issue of Irish independence. Diehard American
isolationists worried about a permanent global involvement. The stubbornness of President Wilson led him to ask his
own party to scuttle the treaty. The final results of all these factors had mammoth long term consequences. Without
the involvement of the world’s newest superpower, the League of Nations was doomed to failure. Over the next two
decades, the United States would sit on the sidelines as the unjust Treaty of Versailles and the ineffective League of
Nations would set the stage for an even bloodier, more devastating clash.
FIGURE 5.2
WASHINGTON NAVAL ARMS CONFERENCE AND THE KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT
On the international scene, two themes dominated American diplomacy. The first was to take steps to avoid the
mistakes that led to World War I. To this end, President Harding convened the Washington Naval Arms Conference
in 1921. The United States, Great Britain, and Japan agreed to a ten-year freeze on the construction of battleships
and to maintain a capital ship ratio of 5:5:3. They also agreed to uphold the Open Door Policy and to respect each
other’s holdings in the Pacific. In 1928, the United States and France led an initiative called the Kellogg-Briand
Pact, in which 62 nations agreed to outlaw war. These two measures showed the degree to which Americans hoped
to forestall another disastrous war. The second priority dealt with outstanding international debt. While practicing
political isolation, the United States was completely entangled with Europe economically. The Allies owed the
United States an enormous sum of money from World War I. Lacking the resources to reimburse America, the Allies
relied on German reparations. The German economy was so debased by the Treaty of Versailles provisions that
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
they relied on loans from American banks for support. In essence, American banks were funding the repayment
of the foreign debt. As Germany slipped further and further into depression, the United States intervened again.
The Dawes Plan allowed Germany to extend their payments on more generous terms. In the end, when the Great
Depression struck, only Finland was able to make good on its debt to the United States.
FIGURE 5.3
Washington Naval Arms Conference in
1921
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5.2. Rise of Fascism and Totalitarianism in Europe
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5.2 Rise of Fascism and Totalitarianism in Europe
AMERICANS ARE UNSURE OF HOW TO RESPOND TO HOSTILE LEADERSHIPS IN EUROPE
The day after Franklin Roosevelt took the oath of office, the Nazi Reichstag gave Adolf Hitler absolute control of
Germany. Hitler had campaigned spewing anti-Semitic rhetoric and vowing to rebuild a strong Germany.
During the week prior to FDR’s inauguration, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations for the condemnation of
Japanese aggressions in China. Fascism and militarism were spreading across Europe and East Asia. Meanwhile
Americans were not bracing themselves for the coming war; they were determined to avoid it at all costs.
MUSSOLINI
FIGURE 5.4
Mussolini (on the left)
The first act of European aggression was not committed by Nazi Germany. Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini ordered
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the Italian army to invade Ethiopia in 1935. The League of Nations refused to act, despite the desperate pleas from
Ethiopia’s leader Haile Selassie.
HITLER AND MUSSOLINI
The following year Hitler and Mussolini formed the Rome-Berlin Axis, an alliance so named because its leaders
believed that the line that connected the two capitals would be the axis around which the entire world would revolve.
Later in 1936, Hitler marched troops into the Rhineland of Germany, directly breaching the Treaty of Versailles,
which was signed after World War I. A few months later, Fascist General Francisco Franco launched an attempt
to overthrow the established Loyalist government of Spain. Franco received generous support from Hitler and
Mussolini.
UNITED STATES VOWS TO STAY NEUTRAL
Fascist aggressors were chalking up victories across Europe; meanwhile, America, Britain, and France sat on the
sidelines. The desire to avoid repeating the mistakes of World War I was so strong, no government was willing to
confront the dictators. Economic sanctions were unpopular during the height of the Great Depression. The Loyalists
in Spain were already receiving aid from the Soviet Union; therefore, public opinion was against assisting Moscow
in its "private" war against fascism. As the specter of dictatorship spread across Europe, the West feebly objected
with light rebukes and economic penalties with no teeth.
WAR BREAKS OUT IN EUROPE
Emboldened by western inaction, Hitler’s troops marched into Austria in 1938 and annexed the country. Then
Hitler set his eyes upon the Sudetenland, a region in western Czechoslovakia inhabited by 3.5 million Germans.
In September the leaders of Britain, France, Germany, and Italy met in Munich attempting to diffuse a precarious
situation.
Britain and France recognized Hitler’s claim to the Sudetenland and Mussolini’s conquest of Ethiopia in exchange
for the promise of no future aggressions. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned to Great Britain triumphantly
proclaiming that he had achieved "peace in our time." It would be one of the most mocked statements of the 20th
century.
European appeasement failed six months later, as Hitler mockingly marched his troops into the rest of Czechoslovakia.
In May 1939, Roosevelt urged Congressional leaders to repeal the arms embargo of the earlier Neutrality Acts.
Senators from both parties refused the request. Another bombshell crossed the Atlantic on August 24. Adolf Hitler
and Josef Stalin agreed to put their mutual hatred aside. Germany and the Soviet Union signed a ten-year non
aggression pact. Hitler was now free to seize the territory Germany had lost to Poland as a result of the Treaty of
Versailles. On September 1, 1939, Nazi troops crossed into Poland from the west.
Finally, on September 3, France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. World War II had begun.
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FIGURE 5.5
Hitler watches a victory parade in Warsaw, October 1939
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.3 Isolationism
LEAVE ME ALONE
"Leave me alone," seemed to be America’s attitude toward the rest of the world in the 1930s. At the dawn of the
’30s, foreign policy was not a burning issue for the average American. The stock market had just crashed and
each passing month brought greater and greater hardships. American involvement with Europe had brought war in
1917 and unpaid debt throughout the 1920s. Having grown weary with the course of world events, citizens were
convinced the most important issues to be tackled were domestic. Foreign policy leaders of the 1930s once again
led the country down its well-traveled path of isolationism.
1930s ISOLATIONISM
The Hoover Administration set the tone for an isolationist foreign policy with the Hawley-Smoot Tariff. Trade often
dominated international relations and the protective wall of the tariff left little to discuss. The Far East became an
area of concern when the Japanese government ordered an attack on Chinese Manchuria. This invasion was a clear
violation of the Nine Power Treaty, which prohibited nations from carving a special sphere of influence in China.
FIGURE 5.6
The Hoover Administration knew that any harsh action against Japan would be unpopular in the midst of the Great
Depression. The official American response was the Stimson Doctrine, which refused to recognize any territory
illegally occupied by Japan. As meek as this may sound, it went further toward condemning Japan than the
government of Great Britain was willing to do. One possibility for international economic cooperation failed at
the London Conference of 1933. Leaders of European nations hoped to increase trade and stabilize international
currencies. Roosevelt sent a "bombshell message" to the conference refusing any attempt to tie the American dollar
to a gold standard. The conference dissolved with European delegates miffed at the lack of cooperation by the United
States.
Roosevelt did realize that the Hawley-Smoot Tariff was forestalling American economic recovery. Toward this end,
Congress did act to make United States trade policy more flexible. Under the Reciprocal Trade Agreement of 1934,
Congress authorized the President to negotiate tariff rates with individual nations. Should a nation agree to reduce its
barriers to trade with the United States, the President could reciprocate without the consent of Congress. In addition,
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FDR broke a 16-year-old diplomatic freeze with the Soviet Union by extending formal recognition. Roosevelt hoped
to settle some nettlesome outstanding issues with the Soviets, and at the same time stimulate bilateral trade.
FIGURE 5.7
The Japanese attack on Chinese Manchuria was in direct violation of
the Nine Powers Treaty, which had been passed to prevent nations from
establishing a special sphere of influence in China. Here a Japanese tank
rolls through Shanghai, China.
Isolationists did not however designate the Western Hemisphere as a dangerous region. On the contrary, as tensions
grew in Europe and Asia, a strong sense of Pan-Americanism swept the diplomatic circles. In the face of overseas
adversity, strong hemispheric solidarity was attractive. To foster better relations with the nations to the south,
Roosevelt declared a bold new Good Neighbor Policy. Marines stationed in Central America and the Caribbean
were withdrawn. The (Theodore) Roosevelt Corollary, which proclaimed the right of the United States to intervene
in Latin American affairs was renounced. The United States would soon be intervening in something much bigger.
NEUTRALITY
Fascist aggressors were chalking up victories across Europe;meanwhile, America, Britain, and France sat on the
sidelines. The desire to avoid repeating the mistakes of World War I was so strong, no government was willing to
confront the dictators. Economic sanctions were unpopular during the height of the Great Depression. The Loyalists
in Spain were already receiving aid from the Soviet Union; therefore, public opinion was against assisting Moscow
in its "private" war against fascism. As the specter of dictatorship spread across Europe, the West feebly objected
with light rebukes and economic penalties with no teeth.
The United States Congress and President Roosevelt passed three important laws — all called Neutrality Acts —
directly aimed at reversing the mistakes made that led to the American entry into the First World War.
The Neutrality Act of 1935 prohibited the shipment of arms to nations at war, including the victims of aggressions.
This would reduce the possibility of maritime attacks on American vessels. A Senate Committee led by Gerald
Nye had conducted extensive research on US activities prior to World War I concluded that trade and international
finance had been the leading cause of American entry.
The Neutrality Act of 1936 was designed to keep American citizens out of peril by forbidding them to travel on the
ships of warring nations. More than 100 Americans were killed when a German submarine torpedoed the Lusitania
in 1915.
The Neutrality Act of 1936 renewed the law of the previous year with the additional restrictions — no loans could
be made to belligerent nations. Nor were any Americans permitted to travel on the ships of nations at war. There
would be no more Lusitania incidents.
A Neutrality Act of 1937 limited the trade of even non-munitions to belligerent nations to a "cash and carry basis."
This meant that the nation in question would have to use its ships to transport goods to avoid American entanglements
on the high seas. Isolationists in Congress felt reasonably confident that these measures would keep the United States
out of another war.
But as the decade passed, President Roosevelt was growing increasingly skeptical.
HOOVER-STIMSON NOTE
• The Stimson Doctrine
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FIGURE 5.8
• The hoover-stimson doctrine - Doctrines
• Hoover Foreign Affairs
JOHNSON DEBT DEFAULT ACT
• United States Johnson Debt Default Act
• Johnson Debt Default Act of 1934
NEUTRALITY ACTS
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Neutrality Acts
FDR signs NeutralityAct
The Neutrality Act of 1937
FDR urges repeal of Neutrality Act embargo provisions
1939 US Neutrality Act
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5.4 Roosevelt’s Response to a Troubled World
FDR CANNOT BE SILENT ANY LONGER
On July 7, 1937, a skirmish between Chinese and Japanese troops broke out at the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing.
The cause of the fracas is unknown, but the Japanese government used it as a pretext to launch a full-scale invasion
of China.
Hitler’s troops marched into Austria in 1938 and annexed the country. Then Hitler set his eyes upon the Sudetenland,
a region in western Czechoslovakia inhabited by 3.5 million Germans. In 1939 Hitler and Germany invaded Poland
and took control of its capital in Warsaw.
The rise of totalitarianism around the world elicited multiple responses from the United States and President Roosevelt.
FIGURE 5.9
QUARANTINE SPEECH
In October 1937, President Roosevelt delivered his famous Quarantine Speech in Chicago. For the first time,
Roosevelt advocated collective action to stop the epidemic of aggression. But his hopes of igniting American
sensibilities failed. Even when a Japanese plane bombed the USS Panay on December 12, there was no cry for
a response. The Panay had been stationed in China on the Yangtze River. Japan apologized and paid an indemnity
and the incident was soon forgotten, despite the loss of three American lives. Compared to the public response to
the sinking of the Maine in 1898, the American people hardly mustered a whisper.
• Quarantine Speech, FDR
FADING NEUTRALITY AND THE LEND-LEASE ACT
Two days after Britain and France declared war on Nazi Germany, President Roosevelt issued a proclamation of
neutrality and ordered the suspension of munitions sales to all belligerents. But Roosevelt stopped short of asking
that Americans remain emotionally neutral in the European conflict. FDR knew that the only chance Britain and
France would have to defeat the German Reich was to have ample supplies of weaponry. He immediately began
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
to press Congress to repeal the arms embargo. The request was simple. Allow trade of munitions with belligerent
nations on a "cash and carry" basis. There would be no danger to American shipping if the Allies had to carry
the supplies on their own ships. Isolationists were concerned, but support for the President’s initiative was strong
enough. The Neutrality Act of 1939 ended the arms embargo and permitted the sales of munitions on a "cash and
carry" basis.
Slowly but surely American public opinion shifted toward helping the British. The Committee to Defend America
by Aiding the Allies launched a propaganda campaign to mobilize the American public. Miraculously Britain held
its own with Germany while America deliberated. In September 1940, the United States agreed to the transfer of
50 old destroyers to the British fleet in exchange for naval bases in the Western Hemisphere. By directly aiding the
Allies, America could no longer hide behind the shield of neutrality. At Roosevelt’s urging, Congress authorized the
construction of new planes to defend America’s coast. Congress also enacted the first peacetime draft in the nation’s
history in September 1940. The interventionist argument seemed to be prevailing, but debate continued into 1941.
The Destroyer Deal was helpful, but Britain simply did not have the financial reserves to pay for all the weapons
they needed. Roosevelt feared another postwar debt crisis so he hatched a new plan called Lend-Lease. Roosevelt
publicly mused that if a neighbor’s house is on fire, nobody sells him a hose to put it out. Common sense dictated
that the hose is lent to the neighbor and returned when the fire is extinguished. The United States could simply lend
Great Britain the materials it would need to fight the war. When the war was over, they would be returned. The
Congress hotly argued over the proposal. Senator Robert Taft retorted: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like
lending chewing gum. You don’t want it back."
In March 1941 after a great deal of controversy, Congress approved the Lend-Lease Act, which eventually appropriated $50 billion of aid to the Allies. Meanwhile Roosevelt began an unprecedented third term.
Neutrality was no longer a façade behind which America could hide. Hitler saw Lend-Lease as tantamount to a war
declaration and ordered attacks on American ships.
FIGURE 5.10
FDR signing the Lend-Lease Act
THE FOUR FREEDOMS SPEECH
Roosevelt urged Congress and Americans to take action. In his famous Four Freedoms speech he enumerates what
the rights of any citizen of the world are and why it is important for America to lead the way:
The first is freedom of speech and expression — everywhere in the world. The second is freedom of every person
to worship God in his own way — everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which, translated
into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its
inhabitants — everywhere in the world. The fourth is freedom from fear, which, translated into world terms, means
a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a
position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor — anywhere in the world.
FDR - Four Freedoms Speech Text
FDR - Four Freedoms Speech Audio and Text
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THE ATLANTIC CONFERENCE AND CHARTER
The Atlantic Charter was a joint declaration released by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill on August 14, 1941 following a meeting of the two heads of state in Newfoundland.
The Atlantic Charter provided a broad statement of U.S. and British war aims.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
The meeting had been called in response to the geopolitical situation in Europe by mid-1941. Although Great Britain
had been spared from a German invasion in the fall of 1940 and, with the passage of the U.S. Lend Lease Act in
March 1941, was assured U.S. material support, by the end of May, German forces had inflicted humiliating defeats
upon British, Greek, and, Yugoslav forces in the Balkans and were threatening to overrun Egypt and close off the
Suez Canal, thereby restricting British access to its possessions in India. When the Germans invaded the Soviet
Union on June 22, 1941, few policymakers in Washington or London believed that the Soviets would be able to
resist the Nazi onslaught for more than six weeks. While the British Government focused its efforts on dealing with
the Germans in Europe, they were also concerned that Japan might take advantage of the situation to seize British,
French, and Dutch territories in Southeast Asia.
FIGURE 5.11
Churchill’s copy of the Atlantic Charter
Churchill and Roosevelt met on August 9 and 10, 1941 aboard the U.S.S. Augusta in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland,
to discuss their respective war aims for the Second World War and to outline a postwar international system.
The Charter they drafted included eight “common principles” that the United States and Great Britain would be
committed to supporting in the postwar world. Both countries agreed not to seek territorial expansion; to seek the
liberalization of international trade; to establish freedom of the seas, and international labor, economic, and welfare
standards. Most importantly, both the United States and Great Britain were committed to supporting the restoration
of self-governments for all countries that had been occupied during the war and allowing all peoples to choose their
own form of government
While the meeting was successful in drafting these aims, it failed to produce the desired results for either leader.
President Roosevelt had hoped that the Charter might encourage the American people to back U.S. intervention in
World War II on behalf of the Allies; however, public opinion remained adamantly opposed to such a policy until the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Churchill’s primary goal in attending the Atlantic Conference
was “to get the Americans into the war.” Barring that, he hoped that the United States would increase its amount of
military aid to Great Britain and warn Japan against taking any aggressive actions in the Pacific.
Roosevelt, on the other hand, wanted the British Government to affirm publicly that it was not involved in any secret
treaties, particularly ones concerning territorial questions, such as those concluded by the Allies during the First
World War concerning the division of enemy territory at war’s end. Roosevelt also wished to arrange the terms
by which Great Britain would repay the United States for its Lend Lease assistance. Roosevelt wanted the British
to pay compensation by dismantling their system of Imperial Preference, which had been established by the British
Government during the Great Depression and was designed to encourage trade within the British Empire by lowering
tariff rates between members, while maintaining discriminatory tariff rates against outsiders.
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Churchill was extremely disappointed by Roosevelt’s refusal to discuss American entry into the war. Furthermore,
Churchill understood that several aspects of the proposed joint declaration might be politically damaging for the
Prime Minister. Churchill worried that the abandonment of Imperial Preference would anger the protectionist wing
of his Conservative Party. The Americans also proved unwilling to warn Japan too strongly against any future
military action against British possessions in Southeast Asia. Finally, both Churchill and many members of his
Cabinet were alarmed by the third point of the Charter, which mentions the rights of all peoples to choose their
own government. Churchill was concerned that this clause acknowledged the right of colonial subjects to agitate for
decolonization, including those in Great Britain’s empire.
Nevertheless, Churchill realized that the joint declaration was the most he could accomplish during the conference.
While the United States would remain neutral, the declaration would raise the morale of the British public and,
most importantly, bind the United States closer to Great Britain. Therefore, when Churchill forwarded the text of
the declaration to his Cabinet on August 11, he warned them that would it be “imprudent” to raise unnecessary
difficulties. The Cabinet followed Churchill’s recommendation and approved the Charter.
While the Atlantic Charter of August 1941 was not a binding treaty, it was, nonetheless, significant for several
reasons. First, it publicly affirmed the sense of solidarity between the U.S. and Great Britain against Axis aggression.
Second, it laid out President Roosevelt’s Wilsonian-vision for the postwar world; one that would be characterized
by freer exchanges of trade, self-determination, disarmament, and collective security. Finally, the Charter ultimately
did serve as an inspiration for colonial subjects throughout the Third World, from Algeria to Vietnam, as they fought
for independence.
The Atlantic Charter - FDR Library
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FIGURE 5.12
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5.5 Attack on Pearl Harbor Propels the United
States Into World War II
PEARL HARBOR
FIGURE 5.13
The USS Arizona was pounded by Japanese bombers as it rested at
anchor at Pearl Harbor. The ship ultimately sank, taking the lives of 1,177
crew members.
While the international picture in Europe was growing increasingly dimmer for the United States, relations with
Japan were souring as well. Japan’s aggression was literally being fueled by the United States. The Japanese
military machine relied heavily on imports of American steel and oil to prosecute its assault on China and French
Indochina.
Placing a strict embargo on Japan would have seemed obvious, but Roosevelt feared that Japan would strike at the
resource-laden Dutch East Indies to make up the difference. Beginning in late-1940, the United States grew less
patient with Japanese atrocities and began to restrict trade with the Empire.
Just prior to Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union, Japan signed a nonaggression pact with Stalin. This removed the
threat of a Russian attack on Japan’s new holdings. With Europe busy fighting Hitler, the United States remained
the only obstacle to the establishment of a huge Japanese empire spanning East Asia.
By the end of 1940, the United States had ended shipments of scrap metal, steel, and iron ore to Japan. Simultaneously, the United States began to send military hardware to CHIANG KAI-SHEK, the nominal leader of the Chinese
forces resisting Japanese takeover. By the beginning of World War II, Japan had established a powerful navy aviation
division. It was this superior air power that carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Negotiations between Japan and the U.S. began in early 1941, but there was little movement. By midsummer, FDR
made the fateful step of freezing all Japanese assets in the United States and ending shipments of oil to the island
nation. Negotiations went nowhere. The United States was as unwilling to accept Japanese expansion and Japan
was unwilling to end its conquests.
FIGURE 5.14
By the beginning of World War II, Japan had established a powerful navy
aviation division. It was this superior air power that carried out the attack
on Pearl Harbor.
American diplomats did, however, have a hidden advantage. With the help of "MAGIC," a decoding device, the
United States was able to decipher Japan’s radio transmissions. Leaders in Washington knew that the deadline for
diplomacy set by Japan’s high command was November 25. When that date came and passed, American officials
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were poised for a strike. The prevailing view was that the attack would focus on British Malaya or the Dutch East
Indies to replenish dwindling fuel supplies.
Unbeknown to the United States, a Japanese fleet of aircraft carriers stealthily steamed toward Hawaii.
The goals for the Japanese attack were simple. Japan did not hope to conquer the United States or even to
force the abandonment of Hawaii with the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States was too much of a threat
to their newly acquired territories. With holdings in the Philippines, Guam, American Samoa, and other small
islands, Japan was vulnerable to an American naval attack. A swift first strike against the bulk of the UNITED
STATES PACIFIC FLEET would seriously cripple the American ability to respond. The hopes were that Japan
could capture the PHILIPPINES and American island holdings before the American navy could recuperate and
retaliate. An impenetrable fortress would then stretch across the entire Pacific Rim. The United States, distracted by
European events, would be forced to recognize the new order in East Asia. On the morning of December 7, 1941,
FIGURE 5.15
On the morning of December 7, 1941, approximately 100 U.S. Navy
battleships, destroyers, cruisers, and support ships, were present at Pearl
Harbor.
approximately 100 U.S. Navy battleships, destroyers, cruisers, and support ships, were present at Pearl Harbor.
All these assumptions were wrong. As the bombs rained on PEARL HARBOR on the infamous morning of Sunday,
December 7, 1941, almost 3,000 Americans were killed. Six battleships were destroyed or rendered unseaworthy,
and most of the ground planes were ravaged as well. Americans reacted with surprise and anger.
Most American newspaper headlines had been focusing on European events, so the Japanese attack was a true
blindside. When President Roosevelt addressed the Congress the next day and asked for a declaration of war, there
was only one dissenting vote in either house of Congress. Despite two decades of regret over World War I and
ostrichlike isolationism, the American people plunged headfirst into a destructive conflict.
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5.6 Countries Involved in World War II and Major Theaters of World War II
BELLIGERENTS OF WORLD WAR II
Three days after Congress declared war on Japan, Germany responded by declaring war on the United States. Japan
had an advance pledge of support from Hitler in the event of war with the United States. Now President Roosevelt
faced a two-ocean war — a true world war. Despite widespread cries for revenge against Japan, the first major
decision made by the President was to concentrate on Germany first. The American Pacific Fleet would do its best
to contain Japanese expansion, while emphasis was placed on confronting Hitler’s troops.
FIGURE 5.16
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FIGURE 5.17
EUROPEAN THEATER
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FIGURE 5.18
ALLIED INVASION OF NORMANDY,
FRANCE
FIGURE 5.19
Allied Invasion of Normandy, France Beaches were code named UTAH, OMAHA, GOLD, JUNO, and SWORD.
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FIGURE 5.20
PACIFIC THEATER
FIGURE 5.21
Pearl Harbor
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5.7 Wartime Strategy
Hitler First, Then Japan
Despite widespread cries for revenge against Japan, the first major decision made by the President Roosevelt was to
concentrate on Germany first. The American Pacific Fleet would do its best to contain Japanese expansion, while
emphasis was placed on confronting Hitler’s troops.
Roosevelt believed that a Nazi-dominated Europe would be far more impregnable that any defenses Japan could
build in the Pacific. American scientists worried that, with enough time, German scientists might develop weapons
of mass destruction. Once Hitler was defeated, the combined Allied forces would concentrate on smashing Japanese
ambitions.
FIGURE 5.22
The vast military knowledge of German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel
— known as "The Desert Fox" — was not enough to keep British and
American forces from driving German troops from North Africa in late
1942.
American military leaders favored a far more aggressive approach to attacking Germany than their British counterparts. A cross-channel invasion of France from Britain would strike at the heart of Nazi strength, but the British
command was dubious. Winston Churchill feared that should such an operation fail, the loss of human life, military
resources, and British morale could be fatal.
Instead, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to implement an immediate blockade of supplies to Germany and to begin
bombing German cities and munitions centers. The army would attack Hitler’s troops at their weakest points first
and slowly advance toward German soil. The plan was known as "closing the ring."
NORTH AFRICA
In December 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to attack German holdings in North Africa first. That maneuver
was finally executed in October 1942. Nazi troops were occupying much of the African Mediterranean coast, which
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had been controlled by France prior to the war. Led by British General Bernard Montgomery, British forces struck at
German and Italian troops commanded by the "Desert Fox," German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, at El Alamein
in Egypt. As the British forced a German retreat, Anglo-American forces landed on the west coast of Africa on
November 8 to stage a simultaneous assault. Rommel fought gamely, but numbers and positioning soon forced a
German surrender. The Allies had achieved their first important joint victory.
FIGURE 5.23
World War II - Europe and North Africa
EUROPEAN THEATER
ITALY
Once Northern Africa was secured, the Allies took the next step toward Germany by launching invasions of Sicily
and Italy. American and British leaders believed that when the Italian people faced occupation of their homeland,
they would rise up and overthrow Mussolini. Fearing that the Allies would have a free road up to the border of
Austria, German forces began to entrench themselves in Italy.
Despite German presence in Italy, Mussolini was arrested and the Italians surrendered to the Allies on September 3.
There was no free road to Austria, however. German forces defended the peninsula ferociously, and even when the
European war ended in May 1945, the Allies had failed to capture much of Italy.
D-DAY
FIGURE 5.24
Hitler’s refusal to surrender to the Allies led to "Operation Overlord" on
June 6, 1944. British, Canadian, and American forces managed to take
key points on the coast of Nazi-occupied France, signaling a beginning to
the end of war in Europe.
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The time had finally come. British and American troops had liberated North Africa and pressed on into Italy. Soviet
troops had turned the tide at Stalingrad and were slowly reclaiming their territory. The English Channel was virtually
free of Nazi submarines, and American and British planes were bombing German industrial centers around the clock.
A great game of espionage soon unfolded. If the Germans could discover when and where the attack would occur,
they could simply concentrate all their efforts in one area, and the operation would be doomed to failure. The
Allies staged phony exercises meant to confuse German intelligence. Two-dimensional dummy tanks were arranged
to distract air surveillance. There was considerable reason to believe the attack would come at Calais, where the
English Channel is narrowest. In actuality, Operation Overlord was aiming for the Normandy Peninsula on the
morning of June 4, 1944.
FIGURE 5.25
D-Day troops wade into the waist-deep
water and onto the shore to face the enemy in battle.
Foul weather postponed the attack for two days. Just after midnight on June 6, three airborne divisions parachuted
behind enemy lines to disrupt paths of communications. As the German lookout sentries scanned the English
Channel at daybreak, they saw the largest armada ever assembled in history heading toward the French shore. There
were five points of attack. Gold and Sword Beaches were taken by the British, and Juno Beach was captured by
Canadian forces. The American task was to capture Utah and Omaha Beaches. The troops at Omaha Beach met
fierce resistance and suffered heavy casualties. Still, by nightfall a beachhead had been established. Eventually,
German troops retreated.
BATTLE OF THE BULGE
After D-Day, the days of the German resistance were numbered. Paris was liberated in August 1944 as the Allies
pushed slowly eastward. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union was moving into German territory as well. Hitler, at the
Battle of the Bulge, launched a final unsuccessful counter-offensive in December 1944.
Early on the misty winter morning of 16 December 1944, over 200,000 German troops and nearly 1,000 tanks
launched Adolf Hitler’s last bid to reverse the ebb in his fortunes that had begun when Allied troops landed in
France on D-day. Seeking to drive to the English Channel coast and split the Allied armies as they had done in May
1940, the Germans struck in the Ardennes Forest, a seventy-five-mile stretch of the front characterized by dense
woods and few roads, held by four inexperienced and battle-worn American divisions stationed there for rest and
seasoning.
After a day of hard fighting, the Germans broke through the American front, surrounding most of an infantry division,
seizing key crossroads, and advancing their spearheads toward the Meuse River, creating the projection that gave the
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battle its name.
Stories spread of the massacre of soldiers and civilians at Malmedy and Stavelot, of paratroopers dropping behind
the lines, and of English-speaking German soldiers, disguised as Americans, capturing critical bridges, cutting
communications lines, and spreading rumors. For those who had lived through 1940, the picture was all too familiar.
Belgian townspeople put away their Allied flags and brought out their swastikas. Police in Paris enforced an all-night
curfew. British veterans waited nervously to see how the Americans would react to a full-scale German offensive,
and British generals quietly acted to safeguard the Meuse crossings. Even American civilians who had thought final
victory was near were sobered by the Nazi onslaught.
But this was not 1940. The supreme Allied commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower rushed reinforcements to
hold the shoulders of the German penetration. Within days, Lt. Gen. George S. Patton, Jr. had turned his Third
U.S. Army to the north and was counterattacking against the German flank. But the story of the battle of the Bulge
is above all the story of American soldiers. Often isolated and unaware of the overall picture, they did their part to
slow the Nazi advance, whether by delaying armored spearheads with obstinate defenses of vital crossroads, moving
or burning critical gasoline stocks to keep them from the fuel-hungry German tanks, or coming up with questions on
arcane Americana to stump possible Nazi infiltrators.
At the critical road junctions of St. Vith and Bastogne, American tankers and paratroopers fought off repeated
attacks, and when the acting commander of the 101st Airborne Division in Bastogne was summoned by his German
adversary to surrender, he simply responded, "Nuts!"
Within days, Patton’s Third Army had relieved Bastogne, and to the north, the 2d U.S. Armored Division stopped
enemy tanks short of the Meuse on Christmas Day. Through January, American troops, often wading through deep
snow drifts, attacked the sides of the shrinking bulge until they had restored the front and set the stage for the final
drive to victory.
Never again would Hitler be able to launch an offensive in the West on such a scale. An admiring British Prime
Minister Sir Winston Churchill stated, "This is undoubtedly the greatest American battle of the war and will, I
believe, be regarded as an ever-famous American victory."
Soon the Americans, British, and Free French found themselves racing the Soviets to Berlin.
FIGURE 5.26
Soldiers setting up defensive position Battle of the Bulge
Battle of the Bulge: Rare and Classic Photos From Hitler’s Last Gamble - LIFE
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FIGURE 5.27
The Battle of the Bulge (also known as the
Ardennes Offensive and the Von Rundstedt Offensive) (16 December 1944 –
25 January 1945) was a major German
offensive, launched toward the end of
World War II through the densely forested
Ardennes Mountains region of Wallonia in
Belgium. This German offensive was officially named the Ardennes-Alsace campaign by the U.S. Army, but it is known to
the English-speaking general public simply as the Battle of the Bulge, the "bulge"
being the initial incursion the Germans put
into the Allies’ line of advance.
Battle of the Bulge
MEDIA
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Battle of the Bulge - Newsreel Footage
PACIFIC THEATER
BATAAN DEATH MARCH
Defeating Germany was only part of America’s mission.
Pearl Harbor was only the beginning of Japanese assaults on American holdings in the Pacific. Two days after
attacking Pearl Harbor, they seized Guam, and two weeks after that they captured WAKE ISLAND. Before 1941
came to a close, the Philippines came under attack.
Led by General Douglas MacArthur, the Americans were confident they could hold the Philippine islands. A fierce
Japanese strike proved otherwise. After retreating to strongholds at Bataan and Corregidor, the United States had no
choice but to surrender the Philippines. Before being summoned away by President Roosevelt, General MacArthur
promised: "I shall return." Before he returned however, the Japanese inflicted the Bataan Death March, a brutal
85-mile march forced on American and Filipino POWs. 16,000 souls perished along the way.
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FIGURE 5.28
Bataan Death March
BATTLE OF MIDWAY
In June 1942, Japan hoped to capture Midway Island, an American held base about 1000 miles from Hawaii. Their
belief was that Midway would be useful as a staging point for future attacks on Pearl Harbor. The United States was
still benefiting from being able to decipher Japanese radio messages. As a result, American naval commanders led
by Chester Nimitz knew the assault was coming.
Airplane combat decided the Battle at Midway. After the smoke had cleared, four Japanese aircraft carriers had been
destroyed. The plot to capture Midway collapsed, and Japan lost much of its offensive capability in the process.
After the Battle of Midway, the Japanese were forced to fall back and defend their holdings.
FIGURE 5.29
This map depicts the movements of both
the Japanese and Allied forces during the
Battle of Midway in June 1942.
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“ISLAND HOPPING”, IWO JIMA, AND OKINAWA
Island hopping was the strategy used by the United States command. Rather than taking every Japanese fortification,
the United States selectively chose a path that would move U.S. naval forces closer and closer to the Japanese
mainland. In October 1944, MacArthur returned to the Philippines accompanied by a hundred ships and soon the
islands were liberated. The capture of Iwo Jima and Okinawa cleared the way for an all-out assault on Japan. Despite
heavy losses, the Japanese refused to surrender. They intensified the attacks on American ships with suicide mission
kamikaze flights.
The reasoning behind the “island hopping” theory was two fold. First, the Allies lacked supplies and therefore
couldn’t afford to attack every single island. Second, if they attacked specific islands they would have a base of
operations closer to the Japanese mainland. This strategy allowed the Americans to cut off other more supplied
islands from the Japanese.
Battle for Iwo Jima
"The battle of Iwo Island has been won. The United States Marines by their individual and collective
courage have conquered a base which is as necessary to us in our continuing forward movement
toward final victory as it was vital to the enemy in staving off ultimate defeat.
By their victory, the 3rd, 4th and 5th Marine Divisions and other units of the Fifth Amphibious Corps
have made an accounting to their country which only history will be able to value fully. Among the
Americans who served on Iwo Island, uncommon valor was a common virtue."
–Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
Iwo Jima, which means Sulfur Island, was strategically important as an air base for fighter escorts supporting longrange bombing missions against mainland Japan. Because of the distance between mainland Japan and U.S. bases in
the Mariana Islands, the capture of Iwo Jima would provide an emergency landing strip for crippled B-29s returning
from bombing runs. The seizure of Iwo would allow for sea and air blockades, the ability to conduct intensive air
bombardment and to destroy the enemy’s air and naval capabilities.
The seizure of Iwo Jima was deemed necessary, but the prize would not come easy. The fighting that took place
during the 36-day assault would be immortalized in the words of Commander, Pacific Fleet/Commander in Chief,
Pacific Ocean Areas Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, who said, "Among the Americans who served on Iwo Island,
uncommon valor was a common virtue."
To the Japanese leadership, the capture of Iwo Jima meant the battle for Okinawa, and the invasion of Japan itself,
was not far off.
The 36-day assault resulted in more than 26,000 American casualties, including 6,800 dead. Of the 20,000 Japanese
defenders, only 1,083 survived. The Marines’ efforts, however, provided a vital link in the U.S. chain of bomber
bases. By war’s end, 2,400 B-29 bombers carrying 27,000 crewmen made unscheduled landings on the island.
Historians described U.S. forces’ attack against the Japanese defense as "throwing human flesh against reinforced
concrete." In the end, Iwo Jima was won not only by the fighting spirit of the Marines, but by the meticulous planning
and support provided by the Navy and Army through supply efforts, medical care, and air and naval gunfire.
Twenty-seven Medals of Honor were awarded to Marines and sailors, many posthumously, more than were awarded
for any other single operation during the war.
Battle for Iwo Jima - The Navy Department Library
Battle of Iwo Jima
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FIGURE 5.30
Raising the flag on Iwo Jima - (c) Joe Rosenthal, 1945
Battle for Okinawa
The battle for Okinawa was the bloodiest battle in the Pacific Theater. It is estimated that over 200,000 people died.
Among them were 12,000 Americans, but most of the casualties were civilians.
Okinawa
Battle of Okinawa
MEDIA
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5.8 Individual Sacrifices Were Made By Many
SACRIFICES OF INDIVIDUAL AMERICAN SOLDIERS
• WWII Medal of Honor Recipients
TUSKEGEE AIRMEN
In spite of adversity and limited opportunities, African Americans have played a significant role in U.S. military
history over the past 300 years. They were denied military leadership roles and skilled training because many
believed they lacked qualifications for combat duty. Before 1940, African Americans were barred from flying for the
U.S. military. In 1941, civil rights organizations and the black press exerted pressure that resulted in the formation
of an all African-American pursuit squadron based in Tuskegee, Alabama. They became known as the Tuskegee
Airmen.
FIGURE 5.31
Tuskegee Airmen about May 1942 to Aug
1943, likely in Southern Italy or North
Africa in front of a P-40 fighter aircraft.
"Tuskegee Airmen" refers to all who were involved in the so-called "Tuskegee Experiment," the Army Air Corps’
program to train African Americans to fly and maintain combat aircraft. The Tuskegee Airmen included pilots,
navigators, bombardiers, maintenance and support staff, instructors, and all the personnel who kept the planes in the
air.
The military selected Tuskegee Institute to train pilots because of its commitment to aeronautical training. Tuskegee
had the facilities, and engineering and technical instructors, as well as a climate for year round flying. The first
Civilian Pilot Training Program students completed their instruction in May 1940. The Tuskegee program was then
expanded and became the center for African-American aviation during World War II.
The Tuskegee Airmen overcame segregation and prejudice to become one of the most highly respected fighter
groups of World War II. They proved conclusively that African Americans could fly and maintain sophisticated
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combat aircraft. The Tuskegee Airmen’s achievements, together with the men and women who supported them,
paved the way for full integration of the U.S. military.
FIGURE 5.32
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•
•
•
The Tuskegee Airmen--Overview: Legends of Tuskegee
Red Tail Squadron Red Tail Squadron
Tuskegee Airmen National Museum
Tuskegee Airmen - World War II - HISTORY.com
442nd REGIMENTAL COMBAT TEAM
FIGURE 5.33
Japanese-American infantrymen of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team
hike up a muddy French road in the Chambois Sector, France, in late
1944.
Immediately after Japan’s attacks on Pearl Harbor and other American bases, the United States entered the war
against Japan, Germany, and Italy. The war heightened American prejudice against German Americans and Italian
Americans but the racism directed against Japanese Americans was particularly vicious. The American leadership
response culminated in the forced removal and incarceration of 120,000 United States residents of Japanese ancestry,
including the complete quarantine of communities from the entire West Coast of the United States. This action by the
United States government was precipitated by the attack on Pearl Harbor but it also followed a nearly half-century
history of legal, social, and economic policies directed against Asians in general within the United States.
The events which eventually convinced the War Department and President Franklin Roosevelt to create the segregated 442nd Regimental Combat Team included lobbying from significant supporters of the Japanese American
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community, the sterling training record of the 100th Battalion as well as the well-publicized efforts of the Varsity
Victory Volunteers in Hawaii. The need for more troops as military engagements in the Atlantic and the Pacific
continued was most certainly another factor. The 100th Battalion included about 1,400 Japanese American draftees,
all from Hawaii, as well as white officers. In early 1943, the War Department issued a call for volunteers for a
segregated unit, anticipating approximately equal numbers from Hawaii and the mainland.
The 442nd Regimental Combat Team was organized on March 23, 1943, after more than a year during which
Americans of Japanese descent were declared enemy aliens by the U.S. War Department. It had taken all that time
plus several key events to convince the Roosevelt Administration that these men should be allowed to enter combat
as U.S. citizens. Eventually, the 442nd, bolstered by the combat-hardened 100th Infantry Battalion (comprised of
Japanese American draftees from Hawaii) became the most decorated unit in U.S. military history for its size and
length of service.
Japanese American Soldiers During World War II
MEDIA
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442nd Regimental Combat Team
442nd Regimental Combat Team
THE WAR . At War . Fighting for Democracy . Japanese. . .
After Tour, Medal For WWII Japanese-American Soldiers Returns Home
THE 101st AIRBORNE
The 101st Airborne Division was activated August 16, 1942 at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana.
Its first Commanding General, Major General William C. Lee, noted that the Division had no history, but that it had
a “ rendezvous with destiny” and that the new Division would be habitually called into action when the need was
’immediate and extreme”.
Following its activation and initial training in the United States, the Division embarked for the European Theater of
Operations in September, 1943 where it continuing its training in England.
During the early morning hours of June 6th, 1944, the Screaming Eagles parachuted into the Contentin Peninsula
becoming the first Allied Soldiers to set foot onto occupied France.
The 101st Airborne Division, charged with clearing the way for the 4th Infantry Division’s landing on Utah Beach,
eventually linked the Utah and Omaha beachheads and liberated the city of Carentan. After a month of fighting, the
Division returned to England to prepare for future operations.
On September 17th, 1944 the Division jumped into The Netherlands spearheading Operation MARKET GARDEN. Holding a narrow 16-mile corridor through enemy-held territory, the Division fought against heavy odds for
72 days.
In late-November, 1944, the Division returned to France for a well-deserved rest. The rest would be a short
one. To counteract the massive German offensive through the Ardennes Forest in mid-December 1944, the 101st
Airborne Division was unexpectedly recalled to the front. Responsible for defending the critical road junction
at Bastogne, Belgium, the 101st Airborne Division was surrounded by strong enemy forces that demanded its
immediate surrender. Responding to the German ultimatum, Brigadier Anthony C. McAuliffe made history with his
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famous one-word reply. . . ”Nuts!”. Although the siege of Bastogne was broken on December 26th, 1944, intense
fighting continued until mid-January, 1945 as Allied units reduces Nazi gains in the Ardennes salient.
Attacking the heart of Germany through the Ruhr valley, the 101st Airborne Division pursued retreating German
forces into Bavaria. In spring 1945, the Screaming Eagles liberated the Landsberg concentration camp and Hitler’s
mountaintop retreat in Bertchtesgaden.
The end of World War II in Europe relegated the 101st Airborne to
occupation duties in Germany, Austria, and France.
FIGURE 5.34
Members of E Company, 101st Airborne
• 101st Airborne
• 101st Airborne Division Association
• Overview
101st Airborne Division in Europe, Summer 1944 - World War II
MEDIA
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NAVAJO CODE TALKERS
The Navajo language is very complicated, it does not even have an alphabet. Instead, it is made up of syntax and
tones. Mastering it requires extensive lessons, taught by one of the native speakers. During WWII, the Marines were
looking for the best form of code to prevent their messages from being intercepted. They had machines that could
encode, transmit, and decode a three line English message, but it only took a Navajo 20 seconds to do the same
with their language. Therefore, the Marines began enlisting members of the Navajo tribe as code talkers. About 540
Navajos enlisted during WWII, and up to 420 of them worked as code talkers at some point during the war.
Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Peleliu, Iwo Jima: the Navajo code talkers took part in every assault the U.S. Marines
conducted in the Pacific from 1942 to 1945. They served in all six Marine divisions, Marine Raider battalions
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FIGURE 5.35
Navajo Indians serving in a Marine radio unit.
and Marine parachute units, transmitting messages by telephone and radio in their native language a code that the
Japanese never broke.
The idea to use Navajo for secure communications came from Philip Johnston, the son of a missionary to the Navajos
and one of the few non-Navajos who spoke their language fluently. Johnston, reared on the Navajo reservation, was
a World War I veteran who knew of the military’s search for a code that would withstand all attempts to decipher it.
He also knew that Native American languages notably Choctaw had been used in World War I to encode messages.
Johnston believed Navajo answered the military requirement for an undecipherable code because Navajo is an unwritten language of extreme complexity. Its syntax and tonal qualities, not to mention dialects, make it unintelligible
to anyone without extensive exposure and training. It has no alphabet or symbols, and is spoken only on the Navajo
lands of the American Southwest. One estimate indicates that less than 30 non-Navajos, none of them Japanese,
could understand the language at the outbreak of World War II.
Early in 1942, Johnston met with Major General Clayton B. Vogel, the commanding general of Amphibious Corps,
Pacific Fleet, and his staff to convince them of the Navajo language’s value as code. Johnston staged tests under
simulated combat conditions, demonstrating that Navajos could encode, transmit, and decode a three-line English
message in 20 seconds. Machines of the time required 30 minutes to perform the same job. Convinced, Vogel
recommended to the Commandant of the Marine Corps that the Marines recruit 200 Navajos.
In May 1942, the first 29 Navajo recruits attended boot camp. Then, at Camp Pendleton, Oceanside, California,
this first group created the Navajo code. They developed a dictionary and numerous words for military terms. The
dictionary and all code words had to be memorized during training.
Once a Navajo code talker completed his training, he was sent to a Marine unit deployed in the Pacific theater. The
code talkers’ primary job was to talk, transmitting information on tactics and troop movements, orders and other
vital battlefield communications over telephones and radios. They also acted as messengers, and performed general
Marine duties.
Praise for their skill, speed and accuracy accrued throughout the war. At Iwo Jima, Major Howard Connor, 5th
Marine Division signal officer, declared, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo
Jima." Connor had six Navajo code talkers working around the clock during the first two days of the battle. Those
six sent and received over 800 messages, all without error.
The Japanese, who were skilled code breakers, remained baffled by the Navajo language. The Japanese chief of
intelligence, Lieutenant General Seizo Arisue, said that while they were able to decipher the codes used by the U.S.
Army and Army Air Corps, they never cracked the code used by the Marines. The Navajo code talkers even stymied
a Navajo soldier taken prisoner at Bataan. (About 20 Navajos served in the U.S. Army in the Philippines.) The
Navajo soldier, forced to listen to the jumbled words of talker transmissions, said to a code talker after the war, "I
never figured out what you guys who got me into all that trouble were saying."
In 1942, there were about 50,000 Navajo tribe members. As of 1945, about 540 Navajos served as Marines. From
375 to 420 of those trained as code talkers; the rest served in other capacities.
Navajo remained potentially valuable as code even after the war. For that reason, the code talkers, whose skill and
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courage saved both American lives and military engagements, only recently earned recognition from the Government
and the public.
The Navajo Code Talker’s Dictionary
When a Navajo code talker received a message, what he heard was a string of seemingly unrelated Navajo words.
The code talker first had to translate each Navajo word into its English equivalent. Then he used only the first letter
of the English equivalent in spelling an English word. Thus, the Navajo words "wol-la-chee" (ant), "be-la-sana"
(apple) and "tse-nill" (axe) all stood for the letter "a." One way to say the word "Navy" in Navajo code would be
"tsah (needle) wol-la-chee (ant) ah-keh-di- glini (victor) tsah-ah-dzoh (yucca)."
Most letters had more than one Navajo word representing them. Not all words had to be spelled out letter by letter.
The developers of the original code assigned Navajo words to represent about 450 frequently used military terms that
did not exist in the Navajo language. Several examples: "besh- lo" (iron fish) meant "submarine," "dah-he- tih-hi"
(hummingbird) meant "fighter plane" and "debeh-li-zine" (black street) meant "squad."
Navajo Code Talker’s Dictionary
Peter MacDonald: Real Code Talker
MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/135610
The Story of Navajo Code Talkers
MEDIA
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URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/135612
Navajo Code Talkers
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5.9 Important Individuals of World War II
THE BIG THREE AND WARTIME CONFERENCES
The first involvement of the United States in the wartime conferences between the Allied nations opposing the
Axis powers actually occurred before the nation formally entered World War II. In August 1941,President Franklin
Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met secretly and devised an eight-point statement of war
aims known as the Atlantic Charter, which included a pledge that the Allies would not accept territorial changes
resulting from the war in Europe. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the wartime conferences focused
on establishing a second front.
FIGURE 5.36
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek of China
(left), Roosevelt (middle), and Winston
Churchill (right) at the Cairo Conference
in December of 1943.
At Casablanca in January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to fight until the Axis powers surrendered unconditionally.
In a November 1943 meeting in Egypt with Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to a
pre-eminent role for China in postwar Asia.
The next major wartime conference included Roosevelt, Churchill, and the leader of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin.
Meeting at Tehran following the Cairo Conference, the “Big Three” secured confirmation on the launching of the
cross-channel invasion and a promise from Stalin that the Soviet Union would eventually enter the war against Japan.
MEDIA
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URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/135721
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Footage from the Tehran Conference
In 1944, conferences at Bretton Woods and Dumbarton Oaks created the framework for international cooperation in
the postwar world.
In February 1945, the “Big Three” met at the former Russian czar’s summer palace in the Crimea. Yalta was the
most important and by far the most controversial of the wartime meetings. Recognizing the strong position that the
Soviet Army possessed on the ground, Churchill and an ailing Roosevelt agreed to a number of compromises with
Stalin that allowed Soviet hegemony to remain in Poland and other Eastern European countries, granted territorial
concessions to the Soviet Union, and outlined punitive measures against Germany, including an occupation and
reparations in principle. Stalin did guarantee that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within six months.
FIGURE 5.37
FDR, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta.
The last meeting of the “Big Three” occurred at Potsdam in July 1945, where the tension that would erupt into the
cold war was evident. Despite the end of the war in Europe and the revelation of the existence of the atomic bomb
to the Allies, neither President Harry Truman, Roosevelt’s successor, nor Clement Atlee, who mid-way through
the conference replaced Churchill, could come to agreement with Stalin on any but the most minor issues. The
most significant agreement was the issuance of the Potsdam Declaration to Japan demanding an immediate and
unconditional surrender and threatening Japan with destruction if they did not comply. With the Axis forces defeated,
the wartime alliance soon devolved into suspicion and bitterness on both sides.
FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT
In 1936 FDR was re-elected to the presidency by a top-heavy margin.
Roosevelt pledged the United States to the "good neighbor" policy, transforming the Monroe Doctrine from a
unilateral American manifesto into arrangements for mutual action against aggressors. He also sought through
neutrality legislation to keep the United States out of the war in Europe, yet at the same time to strengthen nations
threatened or attacked. When France fell and England came under siege in 1940, he began to send Great Britain all
possible aid short of actual military involvement.
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FIGURE 5.38
President Franklin D. Roosevelt
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the Nation’s
manpower and resources for global war.
Feeling that the future peace of the world would depend upon relations between the United States and Russia, he
devoted much thought to the planning of a United Nations, in which, he hoped, international difficulties could be
settled.
As the war drew to a close, Roosevelt’s health deteriorated, and on April 12, 1945, while at Warm Springs, Georgia,
he died of a cerebral hemorrhage.
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Biography of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt - US Presidents - HISTORY.com
Foreign Affairs
Franklin D. Roosevelt
American President: Franklin Delano Roosevelt
WINSTON CHURCHILL
Sir Winston Churchill was a British Conservative politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United
Kingdom during World War II. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century, he served as
Prime Minister twice (1940–45 and 1951–55).
• Winston Churchill
• Winston S. Churchill - British History - HISTORY.com
• History - Winston Churchill (pictures, video, facts & news)
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FIGURE 5.39
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
• Winston Churchill Speeches and Radio Broadcasts
• Churchill and the Great Republic - LOC
JOSEPH STALIN
Joseph Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from May 6, 1941 until his death on March 5, 1953. Among the
Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the Russian Revolution in 1917, Stalin held the position of General
Secretary of the party’s Central Committee from 1922 until his death.
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Joseph Stalin - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com
Biography: Joseph Stalin
History - Historic Figures: Joseph Stalin (1879 - 1953)
Joseph Stalin
HARRY TRUMAN
During his few weeks as Vice President, Harry S. Truman scarcely saw President Roosevelt, and received no briefing
on the development of the atomic bomb or the unfolding difficulties with Soviet Russia. Suddenly these and a host of
other wartime problems became Truman’s to solve when, on April 12, 1945, he became President. He told reporters,
"I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me."
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FIGURE 5.40
Joseph Stalin
During World War II he headed the Senate war investigating committee, checking into waste and corruption and
saving perhaps as much as 15 billion dollars.
As President, Truman made some of the most crucial decisions in history. Soon after V-E Day, the war against Japan
had reached its final stage. An urgent plea to Japan to surrender was rejected. Truman, after consultations with
his advisers, ordered atomic bombs dropped on cities devoted to war work. Two were Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Japanese surrender quickly followed.
In June 1945 Truman witnessed the signing of the charter of the United Nations, hopefully established to preserve
peace.
Harry Truman died December 26, 1972, at the age of 88.
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HST Biography
Harry Truman - US Presidents - HISTORY.com
American President: Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman
ADOLF HITLER
• Adolf Hitler - World War II - HISTORY.com
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FIGURE 5.41
President Harry Truman
• Adolf Hitler - Biography - Military Leader, Dictator . . .
• Adolf Hitler
BENITO MUSSOLINI
• Benito Mussolini - World War II - HISTORY.com
• History - Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)
• Benito Mussolini - Biography - Dictator - Biography.com
HIDEKI TOJO
• Tôjô Hideki - World War II - HISTORY.com
• Hideki Tojo
DWIGHT EISENHOWER
Dwight D. Eisenhower served his country in two well documented capacities. First as a general in the United States
Army and then as the 34th President of the United States.
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FIGURE 5.42
Adolf Hitler
In his early Army career, he excelled in staff assignments, serving under Generals John J. Pershing, Douglas
MacArthur, and Walter Krueger. After Pearl Harbor, General George C. Marshall called him to Washington for
a war plans assignment. He commanded the Allied Forces landing in North Africa in November 1942; on D-Day,
1944, he was Supreme Commander of the troops invading France.
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American President: Dwight David Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum
Dwight D. Eisenhower - US Presidents - HISTORY.com
Dwight D. Eisenhower
GEORGE C. MARSHALL
George C. Marshall enjoyed an extremely successful military career, serving in both World Wars and rising to the
rank of five-star general in 1944.
During World War II, Marshall distinguished himself as Army Chief of Staff, a position to which he was appointed
by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Chief of Staff, Marshall earned a strong reputation as an administrator
and successfully transformed a small peacetime army into a strong wartime force while also coordinating Allied
operations.Marshall also proved to be adept at negotiating with Congress and other members of the executive branch,
a talent that would serve him well in his civilian career.
Marshall was nominated as Secretary of State by President Harry S. Truman on January 8, 1947, and was confirmed
unanimously by the Senate. Marshall entered on duty on January 21, 1947, and served as Secretary of State until
January 20, 1949.
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FIGURE 5.43
Benito Mussolini
President Truman relied heavily on Marshall’s expertise to navigate postwar diplomacy. Marshall’s first assignment
was to lead a special mission to China in late 1945 to mediate the conflict between the Nationalists and the
Communists. Although this mission was ultimately unsuccessful, Marshall’s tenure as Secretary of State was marked
by several notable achievements.
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George Catlett Marshall | George C. Marshall
George C. Marshall - Biographical
George C. Marshall - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com
American Experience . MacArthur . People & Events ...
DOUGLAS MACARTHUR
Appointed Chief of Staff of the Army in 1930, with the rank of General, MacArthur remained in that post until 1935.
He then went back to the Philippines, charged with creating an army for that soon-to-be independent island nation.
General MacArthur retired from the U.S. Army in 1937 and was appointed to the rank of Field Marshall in the
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FIGURE 5.44
Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo
Philippine Army. As the threat of war with Japan grew, in July 1941 he was recalled to U.S. service as commander
of U.S. Army Forces in the Far East, initially in the rank of Lieutenant General. After Japan began hostilities in
December 1941 he was responsible for U.S. and Philippines forces in their unsuccessful fight against the conquering
enemy, later receiving the Medal of Honor in recognition of his efforts.
At the order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, General MacArthur was evacuated from the Philippines in March
1942. Given command of Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific area, he directed the successful defense of southeastern New Guinea, and beginning later in 1942, the counteroffensive that ultimately swept the Japanese from the
region, leading to his return to the Philippines with the October 1944 invasion of Leyte. Promoted to General of the
Army shortly before the end of 1944, MacArthur subsequently oversaw the liberation of the rest of the Philippines.
After Japan capitulated in August 1945 General MacArthur presided over the formal surrender ceremonies and,
during the next five years, was responsible for demilitarizing the defeated nation and reforming its political and
economic life.
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Douglas MacArthur - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com
American Experience . MacArthur . People & Events . . .
US People–MacArthur, Douglas (1880-1964)
MacArthur Memorial
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FIGURE 5.45
General Dwight D. Eisenhower
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FIGURE 5.46
George C. Marshall
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FIGURE 5.47
General Douglas MacArthur
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.10 Japanese Americans Outcasted in Wake of
Pearl Harbor
INTERNMENT OF JAPANESE AMERICANS
FIGURE 5.48
Many Americans worried that citizens of Japanese ancestry would act as
spies or saboteurs for the Japanese government. Fear — not evidence —
drove the U.S. to place over 127,000 Japanese-Americans in concentration camps for the duration of WWII.
Over 127,000 United States citizens were imprisoned during World War II. Their crime? Being of Japanese ancestry.
Despite the lack of any concrete evidence, Japanese Americans were suspected of remaining loyal to their ancestral
land. Anti-Japanese paranoia increased because of a large Japanese presence on the West Coast. In the event of a
Japanese invasion of the American mainland, Japanese Americans were feared as a security risk.
Succumbing to bad advice and popular opinion, President Roosevelt signed an executive order in February 1942
ordering the relocation of all Americans of Japanese ancestry to concentration camps in the interior of the United
States.
Evacuation orders were posted in Japanese-American communities giving instructions on how to comply with the
executive order. Many families sold their homes, their stores, and most of their assets. They could not be certain
their homes and livelihoods would still be there upon their return. Because of the mad rush to sell, properties and
inventories were often sold at a fraction of their true value.
FIGURE 5.49
After being forced from their communities, Japanese families made these
military style barracks their homes.
Until the camps were completed, many of the evacuees were held in temporary centers, such as stables at local
racetracks. Almost two-thirds of the interns were Nisei, or Japanese Americans born in the United States. It made
no difference that many had never even been to Japan. Even Japanese-American veterans of World War I were forced
to leave their homes.
Ten camps were finally completed in remote areas of seven western states. Housing was spartan, consisting mainly
of tarpaper barracks. Families dined together at communal mess halls, and children were expected to attend school.
Adults had the option of working for a salary of $5 per day. The United States government hoped that the interns
could make the camps self-sufficient by farming to produce food. But cultivation on arid soil was quite a challenge.
Evacuees elected representatives to meet with government officials to air grievances, often to little avail. Recreational
activities were organized to pass the time. Some of the interns actually volunteered to fight in one of two all-Nisei
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FIGURE 5.50
Most of the ten relocation camps were
built in arid and semi-arid areas where life
would have been harsh under even ideal
conditions.
army regiments and went on to distinguish themselves in battle.
On the whole, however, life in the relocation centers was not easy. The camps were often too cold in the winter and
too hot in the summer. The food was mass produced army-style grub. And the interns knew that if they tried to flee,
armed sentries who stood watch around the clock, would shoot them.
FRED KOREMATSU v. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
FIGURE 5.51
Fred Korematsu challenged the legality of Executive Order 9066 but the
Supreme Court ruled the action was justified as a wartime necessity. It
was not until 1988 that the U.S. government attempted to apologize to
those who had been interned.
Fred Korematsu decided to test the government relocation action in the courts. He found little sympathy there. In
Korematsu vs. the United States , the Supreme Court justified the executive order as a wartime necessity. When the
order was repealed, many found they could not return to their hometowns. Hostility against Japanese Americans
remained high across the West Coast into the postwar years as many villages displayed signs demanding that the
evacuees never return. As a result, the interns scattered across the country.
In 1988, Congress attempted to apologize for the action by awarding each surviving intern $20,000. While the
American concentration camps never reached the levels of Nazi death camps as far as atrocities are concerned, they
remain a dark mark on the nation’s record of respecting civil liberties and cultural differences.
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.11 Women Answer the Call At Home and
Abroad
WOMEN ANSWER THE CALL AT HOME AND ABROAD
FIGURE 5.52
"Rosie the Riveter" served as both a symbol of women’s contributions to
the war effort as well as a call to others to join.
During World War II, the traditional gender division of labor changed, as the "home" or domestic female sphere
expanded to include the "home front". Meanwhile, the public sphere—the male domain—was redefined as the
international stage of military action.
Working American Women in WWII
The Army established the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) in 1942, later converted to the Women’s Army
Corps (WAC) in 1943, and recognized as an official part of the regular army.
More than 150 thousand women served as WACs during the war, and thousands were sent to the European and
Pacific theaters; in 1944 WACs landed in Normandy after D-Day. They also served in Australia, New Guinea, and
the Philippines in the Pacific. Over 60 thousand Army nurses (all military nurses were female then) served stateside
and overseas during World War II. They were kept far from combat, but 67 were captured by the Japanese in the
Philippines in 1942 and were held as POWs for over two-and-a-half years. One Army flight nurse was aboard an
aircraft that was shot down behind enemy lines in Germany in 1944. She was held as a POW for four months. In
1943, Dr. Margaret Craighill became the first female doctor to become a commissioned officer in the United States
Army Medical Corps.
More than 14 thousand Navy nurses served stateside, overseas on hospital ships, and as flight nurses during the war.
Five Navy nurses were captured by the Japanese on the island of Guam and held as POWs for five months before
being exchanged. A second group of 11 Navy nurses were captured in the Philippines and held for 37 months.
The Navy also recruited women into its Navy Women’s Reserve, called Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency
Service (WAVES), starting in 1942.
Before the war was over, 84 thousand WAVES filled shore billets in a large variety of jobs in communications, intelligence, supply, medicine, and administration. The Navy refused to accept Japanese-American women throughout
World War II. USS HIGBEE (DD-806), a GEARING-class destroyer, was the first warship named for a woman to
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take part in combat operation. Lenah S. Higbee, the ship’s namesake, was the Superintendent of the Navy Nurse
Corps from 1911 until 1922.
The Marine Corps created the Marine Corps Women’s Reserve in 1943. That year, the first female officer of the
United States Marine Corps was commissioned, and the first detachment of female marines was sent to Hawaii for
duty in 1945. The first director of the Marine Corps Women’s Reserve was Mrs. Ruth Cheney Streeter from
Morristown, New Jersey. Captain Anne Lentz was its first commissioned officer, and Private Lucille McClarren
its first enlisted woman; both joined in 1943. Marine women served stateside as clerks, cooks, mechanics, drivers,
and in a variety of other positions. By the end of World War II, 85 percent of the enlisted personnel assigned to
Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps were women.
U.S. Women on the Home Front
U.S. women also performed many kinds of non-military service in organizations such as the Office of Strategic
Services (OSS), American Red Cross, and the United Service Organizations (USO).
Nineteen million American women filled out the home front labor force, not only as "Rosie the Riveters" in war
factory jobs, but also in transportation, agriculture, and office work of every variety. Women joined the federal government in massive numbers during World War II. Nearly a million "government girls" were recruited for war work.
In addition, women volunteers aided the war effort by planting victory gardens, canning produce, selling war bonds,
donating blood, salvaging needed commodities, and sending care packages. By the end of the First World War, 24
percent of workers in aviation plants, mainly located along the coasts of the United States, were women and yet this
percentage was easily surpassed by the beginning of the Second World War. Mary Anderson, director of the Women’s
Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, reported in January 1942 that about 2,8 million women "are now engaged in war
work, and that their numbers are expected to double by the end of this year. "
The skills women had acquired through their daily chores proved to be very useful in helping them acquire new skill
sets towards the war effort. For example, the pop culture phenomenon of "Rosie the Riveter" made riveting one of
the most well-known and common jobs for women at that time. Experts speculate that women were so successful
at riveting because it so closely resembled sewing (assembling and seaming together a garment). However, riveting
was just one of many jobs that women were learning and mastering as the aviation industry was developing.
FIGURE 5.53
To aid the war effort, women took over
many jobs traditionally filled by men. This
image shows a woman aircraft worker,
Vega Aircraft Corporation, Burbank, CA.
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• American Women in World War II - World War II - HISTORY . . .
• From Homemaker to Shipbuilder
• A History of Women in Industry
VULTEE AIRCRAFT CORPORATION
FIGURE 5.54
Workers assembling P-38 Lightning fighters at the Vultee Aircraft Corporation factory, Nashville, TN, ca. 1941 Tennessee
State Library and Archives Photograph
Collection
FIGURE 5.55
Workers assembling P-38 Lightning fighters at the Vultee Aircraft Corporation factory, Nashville, TN, ca. 1941 Tennessee
State Library and Archives Photograph
Collection
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Avco Corp.
History : Triumph Aerostructures - Vought Aircraft Division
Nashville, Tennessee
Carlyle Aerostructures
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• The Volunteer State Goes To War
CORNELIA FORT
FIGURE 5.56
Cornelia Fort, second from left, poses
with several of her fellow female aviators
less than two weeks before her death
PHOTO: Nashville Public Library, Special
Collections Division
FIGURE 5.57
Cornelia Clark Fort was a civilian instructor pilot at an airfield near Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii, when the Japanese attacked on December 7, 1941.
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At Twilight’s Last Gleaming
Cornelia Clark Fort
Cornelia Fort
Cornelia Fort - TN Encyclopedia
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.12 World War II and African Americans
A. PHILIP RANDOLPH AND THE FAIR EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES COMMITTEE
FIGURE 5.58
A. Philip Randolph, 1942
In the May 1941 issue of Black Worker , Asa Philip Randolph delivered a speech titled, The Call to Negro America
to March on Washington . The speech urged the organization of a march on Washington, D.C. to end segregation in
the government and the military.
Randolph’s efforts in accumulating support and participation for march proved successful and the threat of thousands
of people converging on the national capital was enough to compel President Roosevelt to sign Executive Order
8802. The order created the Fair Employment Practices Committee and banned racial discrimination in any defense
industry receiving federal contracts by declaring "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers
in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin." The order also empowered
the Fair Employment Practices Committee to investigate complaints and take action against alleged employment
discrimination. In exchange for the issuance of the executive order by FDR, Randolph called off the march.
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A. Philip Randolph Bio
A. Philip Randolph - History
The Call to Negro America to March on Washington (1941) - Speech
Executive Order 8802
Fair Employment Practices Committee
What Effect Did the WWII Fair Employment Practices Commission Have on the Civil Rights Movement?
Confronting Work Place Discrimination on the WWII Home Front - Docs Teach Activity
MILITARY PARTICIPATION
The military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history
of the United States to the present day. There has been no war fought by or within the United States in which African
Americans did not participate, including the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War , the
Civil War, the Spanish-American War , the World Wars, the Korean War , the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, and the
wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as other minor conflicts.
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World War II
Despite their high enlistment rate in the U.S. Army, African Americans were not treated equally, as racial tensions
still existed . At parades, church services, in transportation and canteens the races were kept separate. Many soldiers
of color served their country with distinction during World War II. There were 125,000 African Americans who were
overseas in World War II. Famous segregated units, such as the Tuskegee Airmen , the 761 st Tank Battalion, and
the lesser-known but equally distinguished 452nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion, proved their value in combat.
This eventually led to the desegregation of all U.S. Armed Forces by order of President Harry S. Truman in July
1948 via Executive Order 9981. It abolished racial discrimination in the armed forces and eventually led to the end
of segregation in the services.
FIGURE 5.59
12th AD soldier with German prisoners of war, April 1945.
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. served as commander of the famed Tuskegee Airmen during the War. He later went on to
become the first African American general in the United States Air Force. His father, Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., had
been the first African American Brigadier General in the Army (1940). Doris Miller, a Navy mess attendant, was
the first African American recipient of the Navy Cross, awarded for his actions during the attack on Pearl Harbor .
Miller had voluntarily manned an anti-aircraft gun and fired at the Japanese aircraft, despite having no prior training
in the weapon’s use.
In 1944, the Golden Thirteen became the Navy’s first African American commissioned officers. Samuel L. Gravely,
Jr. became a commissioned officer the same year; he would later be the first African American to command a US
warship, and the first to be an admiral.
The Port Chicago disaster on July 17, 1944, was an explosion of about 2,000 tons of ammunition as it was being
loaded onto ships by black Navy soldiers under pressure from their white officers to hurry. The explosion in Northern
California killed 320 military and civilian workers, most of them black. The aftermath led to the Port Chicago
Mutiny, the only case of a full military trial for mutiny in the history of the U.S. Navy against 50 Afro-American
sailors who refused to continue loading ammunition under the same dangerous conditions. The trial was observed by
the then young lawyer Thurgood Marshall and ended in conviction of all of the defendants. The trial was criticized
for not abiding by the applicable laws on mutiny, and it became influential in the discussion of desegregation.
BUFFALO SOLDIERS: WWII
The term “buffalo soldiers” dates to post-Civil War conflicts with Indians who granted the honorific to an all-black
cavalry outfit. Buffalo soldier units served in the Spanish-American War, World War I, and the Italian campaign
of World War II, when elements of the 92nd Division were among a handful of black units in that war to serve
in combat. The road to Italy passed through various posts in the segregated South and Ft. Huachuca, an isolated
Arizona outpost where the 92nd assembled for the final push. As featured in the novel and film Miracle at St. Anna
, the 92nd distinguished themselves on the battlefield, disproving skeptics and earning an honored chapter in the
history of World War II. Two years after the war ended, President Truman signed an order to desegregate the U.S.
Armed Forces, closing the book on the buffalo soldiers.
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FIGURE 5.60
Soldiers of the 92nd Infantry Division with
a captured German soldier.
• Experiencing War: The 92nd in Italy
• 92nd Infantry - Buffalo Division
• Memoirs of a WWII Buffalo Soldier
Commemoration and Awards
On January 13, 1997, President Bill Clinton, in a White House ceremony, awarded the nation’s highest military
honor—the Medal of Honor—to seven African-American servicemen who had served in World War II. The only
living recipient was First Lieutenant Vernon Baker. The posthumous recipients were Major Charles L. Thomas, First
Lieutenant John R. Fox, Staff Sergeant Ruben Rivers, Staff Sergeant Edward A. Carter, Jr., Private First Class Willy
F. James, Jr., Private George Watson.
PRESIDENT TRUMAN ENDS SEGREGATION IN THE ARMED FORCES
FIGURE 5.61
The Chicago Defender, an African-American newspaper, trumpets the
desegregation of the military.
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Brief Chronology:
• December 6, 1946: President Truman appoints the President’s Committee on Civil Rights.
• October 29, 1947: The Presidentś Committee on Civil Rights issues its landmark report, To Secure These
Rights. The report condemns segregation wherever it exists and criticizes specifically segregation in the armed
forces. The report recommends legislation and administrative action "to end immediately all discrimination
and segregation based on race, color, creed or national origin in...all branches of the Armed Services."
• January 1948: President Truman decides to end segregation in the armed forces and the civil service through
administrative action (executive order) rather than through legislation.
• February 2, 1948: President Truman announces in a special message to Congress on civil rights issues that
he has "instructed the Secretary of Defense to take steps to have the remaining instances of discrimination in
the armed services eliminated as rapidly as possible."
Truman Library: Desegregation of the Military
President Truman Wipes Out Military Segregation
Executive Order 9981
Executive Order 9981 - Foundation for the National Archives
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.13 World War II At Home
THE AMERICAN HOMEFRONT
America was the largest military power in the world — in theory.
The large population, generous natural resources, advanced infrastructure, and solid capital base were all just
potential. Centralization and mobilization were necessary to jump-start this unwieldy machine. Within a week
of Pearl Harbor, Congress passed the WAR POWERS ACT , granting wide authority to the President to conduct the
war effort. Throughout the war hundreds more alphabet agencies were created to manage the American homefront.
First the United States needed to enlarge its armed forces. Because of the peacetime draft, the UNITED STATES
ARMED FORCES boasted over 1.5 million members. By the end of the war, that number rose to 12 million. A
more expansive draft and a vigorous recruitment campaign produced these results.
Toward this end a "WORK OR FIGHT" propaganda campaign was waged. African Americans continued the
Great Migration northward, filling vacated factory jobs. Mexican Americans were courted to cross the border to
assist with the harvest season in the BRACERO GUEST-WORKER PROGRAM . Thousands of retirees went
back on the job, and more and more teenagers pitched in to fill the demand for new labor.
FIGURE 5.62
World War II poster quoting FDR about every citizen’s part in the war.
The United States government spent over twice as much money fighting World War II as it had spent on all previous
programs since its creation. Tax rates were raised to generate revenue and control inflation. Some people paid 90%
of what they earned toward taxes!
Still, more money was needed so the government again launched Liberty and VICTORY LOAN DRIVES like
those that helped finance the First World War. In addition, the size of the federal government more than tripled from
about a million workers in 1940 to almost 3.5 million in 1945.
The United States managed to raise enough food and raw materials in the First World War through voluntary
measures. This time, federal officials agreed that only through RATIONING could the demands be met. Americans
were issued books of stamps for key items such as gasoline, sugar, meat, butter, canned foods, fuel oil, shoes, and
rubber. No purchase of these commodities was legal without a stamp. VICTORY SPEED LIMITS attempted
to conserve fuel by requiring Americans to drive more slowly. Rotating blackouts conserved fuel to be shipped
overseas. Groups such as the Boy Scouts led scrap metal drives. Consumer goods like automobiles and refrigerators
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simply were not produced. Women drew lines down the backs of their legs to simulate nylon stockings when there
were such shortages. Backyard gardens produced about 8 million tons of food.
FIGURE 5.63
Posters like this encouraged Americans to conserve energy and resources
by producing their own food.
Additionally, the Office of War Information sponsored posters and rallies to appeal to patriotic heartstrings. Songs
like BING CROSBY ’s "JUNK WILL WIN THE WAR" and "GOODBYE MAMA, I’M OFF TO YOKOHAMA" were on the lips of many Americans. Propaganda movies shot by famed directors such as FRANK
CAPRA inspired millions.
The accomplishments of the American public were nothing short of miraculous. The navy had fewer than 5,000
vessels prior to the bombing at Pearl Harbor. By 1945, they had over 90,000. In addition, over 80,000 tanks and
nearly 300,000 aircraft were produced during the war years. Millions of machine guns and rifles and billions of
ammunition cartridges rolled off American production lines. New industries like synthetic rubber flourished, and
old ones were rejuvenated.
FIGURE 5.64
Crooners like Bing Crosby kept America smiling during the war with hits
like "Goodbye Mama, I’m Off to Yokohama."
At tremendous cost to the American taxpayer, the American people vanquished two evils: the AXIS POWERS and
the Great Depression.
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
FINANCING THE WAR
By the summer of 1940, the victories of Nazi Germany against Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands,
and France brought urgency to possible United States involvement in World War II . Of principal concern were issues
surrounding war financing. Many of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s advisers favored a system of tax increases
and enforced savings program, as advocated by British economist John Maynard Keynes. In theory, this would
permit increased spending while decreasing the risk of inflation. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau , Jr.,
however, preferred a voluntary loan system and began planning a national defense bond program in the fall of 1940.
The intent was to unite the attractiveness of the baby bonds that had been implemented in the interwar period with
the patriotic element of the Liberty Bonds from the first World War.
Morgenthau sought the aid of Peter Odegard, a political scientist specializing in propaganda, to draw up the goals for
the bond program. On the advice of Odegard, the Treasury began marketing the previously successful baby bonds
as "defense bonds. " Three new series of bond notes, Series E, F, and G, would be introduced, of which Series E
would be targeted at individuals as "defense bonds. " Like the baby bonds, they were sold for as little as $18.75 and
matured in 10 years, at which time the United States government paid the bondholder $25. Larger denominations of
between $50 and $1000 were also made available, all of which, unlike the Liberty Bonds of the first World War, were
non-negotiable bonds. For those that found it difficult to purchase an entire bond at once, 10 cent savings stamps
could be purchased and collected in Treasury-approved stamp albums until the recipient had accumulated enough
stamps for a bond purchase. The name of the bonds was eventually changed to war bonds after the Japanese attack
on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which resulted in the United States entering the war.
The War Finance Committee was placed in charge of supervising the sale of all bonds, and the War Advertising
Council promoted voluntary compliance with bond buying. Popular contemporary art was used to help promote
the bonds such as the Warner Brothers theatrical cartoon, "Any Bonds Today? " More than a quarter of a billion
dollars worth of advertising was donated during the first three years of the National Defense Savings Program. The
government appealed to the public through popular culture. Norman Rockwell’s painting series, The Four Freedoms
, toured in a war bond effort that raised $132 million. Bond rallies were held throughout the country with celebrities,
usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. The Music Publishers Protective
Association encouraged its members to include patriotic messages on the front of their sheet music like "Buy U.S.
Bonds and Stamps. " Over the course of the war, 85 million Americans purchased bonds totaling approximately
$185.7 billion.
The United States government marketed series E U.S. Savings Bonds as war bonds from 1941 to 1980. Those issued
from 1941 to November 1965 accrued interest for 40 years; those issued from December 1965 to June 1980, for 30
years. They were generally issued at 75 cents per dollar face value, maturing at par in a specified number of years
that fluctuated with the rate of interest. Denominations available were $25, $50, $75, $100, $200, $500, $1,000,
$5,000 and $10,000. Series E bonds were issued only in registered, physical form and are not transferable. The
guaranteed minimum investment yield for the bonds was 4 percent, compounded semiannually.
ECONOMIC CONTROLS
Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt battling a conservative Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the
war. Top marginal tax rates ranged from 81%-94% for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the
highest rate was lowered from $5,000,000 to $200,000.Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum
income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944, nearly every employed person
was paying federal income taxes, compared to 10% in 1940.
Many controls were put on the economy. The most important were price controls, imposed on most products and
monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous
agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing
power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production.
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FIGURE 5.65
"For a Secure Future, Buy War Bonds" Office for Emergency Management. Office
of War Information. Domestic Operations
Branch. Bureau of Special Services.
FIGURE 5.66
World War II Ration Book
Executive Order 8875 established the Office of Price Administration (OPA) in 1941. The functions of the OPA were
originally to control money (price controls) and rents after the outbreak of World War II. It became an independent
agency under the Emergency Price Control Act 1942. The OPA had the power to place ceilings on all prices except
agricultural commodities, and to ration scarce supplies of other items, including tires, automobiles, shoes, nylon,
sugar, gasoline, fuel oil, coffee, meats, and processed foods . At the peak, almost 90% of retail food prices were
frozen. It could also authorize subsidies for production of some of those commodities.
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
FIGURE 5.67
The rationing of goods such as tires became commonplace after the establishment of the Office of Price Administration.
• World War II Rationing
BRACERO GUEST-WORKER PROGRAM
FIGURE 5.68
The first Braceros arriving in Los Angeles
by train in 1942
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Learning from Documents - Bracero History
Learning from Photos - Bracero History
World War II Homefront Era: 1940s: Bracero Program . . .
The Bracero Program
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