Download Study Guide for Exam 2 Dr. Osborne

Study Guide for Exam 2
Dr. Osborne
I.
Nutrition
A
Geneml Considerations
1.
Autotrophic organisms make their own food.
2.
Heterotrophic organisms must obtain food from other sources.
B. Plant Nutrition
.
1.
Roots
a.
anchorage for the plant
b.
absoIption ofwater and rnineIa1s
2.
Nutrients RequiRld
a.
CHOPKNS CaFe Mg
b.
CO, is the raw material for glucose-it comes from the air
c.
H20 is used for photosynthesis and water balance and contains minerals
3.
Fungi are not plants. They are heterotrophic.
a.
Saprophytic fungi use·dead organic material.
b.
Parasitic fungi. use Jiving organic material.
C. Animal Nutrition
1.
Herbivores eat plants.
2.
Carnivores eat animals•.
3.
Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
D. Human Nutrition
1.
Carbohydrates
a.. Provide energy and roughage
b.
Examples are sugars and starch
2.
Proteins
a.
Used for body structures
b.
Examples are meat and eggs .
c.
Vegetarians can obtain protein from vegetables
d.
Amino acids·
i.
"Essential- ones must be provided in the diet
ii.
"Non-essential' ones can be made by the body
3.
Lipids
a.
Provide enerRY
b.
Examples are fits and oils
c.
Also include phospholipids and steroids
4.
V"rtamins
a.
0Ipnic molecules used by enzymes
b. Mist be provided in the diet
c.
Cannot be made by the body
S.
Minerals
L'
Inorganic ions ofvarious metals
b.
Used by enzymes for proper fimetion
(
!
.
2
n.
Digestion
A
General Considerations
1.
Organisms that can absorb food do not need to digest it.
2.
An inComplete digestive tract has one opening; a complete system has two openings.
3.
Large food particles require two phases.
a.
Mechanical digestion increases the surface area ofthe particles by making.them smaJ1er
b.
Chemical digestion is used to hydrolyze polymen such as starch, disaccharides, proteins,
lipids and nucleic acids.
B. Human Nutrition
1.
General Considerations
a.
The digestive tract is a series of glands and organs separated by llphincters.
b.
Only the mouth, stomach and smaD intestine have digestiOIL
c.
There is an enzyme for each nutrient that can be digested.
2.
Mouth
.
L
Contains the teeth, tongue and salivary glands
b.
Functions .
i.
Chewing food which is mechanical digestion
ii.
Digestion of starch by salivuy amylase (ptyalin)
3.
Esophagus
a.
Passageway to stomach
b.
c.
4.
No digestion occurs here
Ends the cardiac sphincter
at
Stomach
Closed offby cardiac and pyloric sphincters
Stimulated by gastrin; regulated by enterogastrone
c.
Produces pepsin and lipIse
d.
Performs digestion ofproteins and lipids (mts-triglycerides)
e.
Contains strong acid conditions
Duodenum
a.
First 1G-12 inches of the small intestine
b.
Secretes the hcmnones enterogastrone, secretin and pancreozymin into the bloodstream
c.
Receives secretions fi'om the liver and the pancreas
.
Small Intestine
L
Site ordi@eltion orproteina,liplda, ~ and nualeio·aoida
b.
Secn:tca the hOIIllOllCS cholecystokinin and c:ntcrocaiuin into the bloodstrcllm
c.
Has viIIi to increase surtice area for absorption
i.
Capillaries absorb amino acids, simple sugars and nucleotides
i. LacteaJs absorb &tty acids and glycerol
L
b.
S.
6.
7.
Liver
Stor8p of slYCOF1 and control of metabolism
Production ofbile which emulsifies fi1s
ExcretOIy function for protein and nucleic acid metabolic waste products
Oall Bladder
a.
Storage ofbite
b. Bile emulsifies fits
c.
Bile is released when choJecystokinin is detected in the bloodstream
LaIge Intestine
a.
AbsoIption otwater and storage ofdigestive wastes
b.
Absorption ofminerals
c.
Bounded by the iIeocaecal sphincter and the IJlI1 sphincter
a.
b.
c.
8.
9.
•
I
3
Ill.
Respiration
A.
B.
Anatomy
1.
Trachea, broncbi, bronchioles, lungs
2.
Lungs contain alveoli
Gas Exchange
1.
Oxygen from the atmosphere is inhaled and enters the circulatory system.
2.
COz and HzO from the circulatory system enter the alveoli and are exhaled.
N. Circulation
A. General Considerations
I.
Transport systems for respiratory gases, nutrients and wastes from cells
2.
Closed series ofblood vessels and the heart
3.
Two divisions
a.
Pulmonary circulation - right side of heart sends blood to the lungs
b.
Systemic circulation -left side ofheart sends blood to the body
B. Heart
.
I.
Specialized pwnping 0Ig&ll
2.
Made of cardiac muscle
3.
ControDed by paremakc:r ceDs and the autonomic nervous system
4.
Atherosclerosis.can cause blockage of coronary arteries
C.
Arteries
I.
CaDY blood away from the heart .
2.
Pubnonary arteries caIIy deoxygenated blood to the lunp
3.
4.
D.
CapiDaries
1.
Near to aD body ceDs
2.
3.
4.
. E.
F.
Systemic arteries branch off from the aorta
Arteries send blood through arterioles to the capillaries
5.
.
Oxygen diffiJses from the capillaries across the moist cell membranes into the eeDs.
COz and HzO diffuse from the cells across the moist ceD membranes into the capillaries.
Blood from capillaries enters the venules in order to rctum to the heart.
Excess fluid is forced out into tissues by blood pressure. It is coDec:ted via the lymphatic system.
Veins'
1.
Veins retum blood to the heart.
.
2.
Pulmonary veins retum oxygenated blood to the heut.
3.
Systemic veins retmn blood to the inferior and superior venae cavae.
4.
The hepatic portal vein transports blood from the intestines to the liver.
Blood components
1.
Red blood ccDs contain hemoglobin which carries oxygen.
2.
White blood ceDs have various fimctions.
3.
Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes which are attacked by the AIDS viIus.
4.
Platelets are part ofthe system for blood clotting.
V. . Excretion
A
B.
C.
Metabolic wastes are excreted by the kidneys.
The nephron is the functional unit oftile kidney.
Urine is sent from the kidneys to the bladder for storage.
I
~
4
VI.
Endocrine System
A·
General Considera1iona
1.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones (chemical'signals) directly into the bloodstream.
2.
Hormones are used for long tenn control oftbe body.
B.
Glands
1.
2.
Adrenal glands
L
Located on top of the kidneys
b.
Adrenal medulla (mside layer) produces adrenalin (epinephrine) and norepinephrine
c.
Adrenal cortex (outside layer)
i.
Cortisone and hydrocortisone regulate carbohydrate lllld protein metabolism.
ii.
Aldosterones regulate mineral metabolism.
.
Di.
Androgens and estrogens regulate development ofsecondmy sex characteristics..
Pituitary gland
L
Posterior lobe
.
. .
i
ADH - antidiuretic hormone
..
.
ii.
Oxytocin • causes uterine contractions during labor and stimulates milk producti1
b.
Anterior lobe
.
i. . FSH • foDicle stimulating hOlIDone
.
_/
- stimulate foDicle ceDs in females
• stimulates production of sperm in males
I
ii.
LH -leutenizing hounone
• stimulates the corpus lutewn in females
- stimulates interStitial ceDs in males
iii. Prolactin· milk production in females after birth
iv. ACTII· adrenocorticotropic hormone - controls the adrenal cortex
v.
Thyrotropic hormone - growth and function of the thyroid gland
vi.
Growth hormone - controls growth ofthe body - problems with this gland
I
result in dwarfism
3.
4.
5.
. 6.
.
Gonads
L
Ovaries (females)
i
Contain fo1lic1c ceDs and produce eggs
ii.
Prodw:e estrogens which regulate the uterine lining
iii. The corpus luteum produces progesterone which prepares the uterine
JininB to receiv. a fertl1iad eg.
b.
TC&tes (males)
i
Produce sperm cells
ii.. In1luence development of secondary sex characteristics
Thyroid gland
a. Located surrounding the trachea
b. . Largest gJand which is purely endocrine in function
c.· Produces thyroxin which regu1ates metabolism
Parathyroid g1anda
L
Smallest endocrine glands
b.
Found embedded in the thyroid
c.
Regulate calci1D1l and phosphorus metabolism
Islets ofLangerbans
a. Groups of ceDs located inside the pancreas
b.
Produce insulin which regulates glucose metabolism and lowers blood glucose concentration
c.
Produce glucagon which balances insulin and raises the blood glucose concentration
~
I
s
7.
Other glands
&.
Pinee1
i.
ii.
b.
Secret1:s melatonin
Associated with detection ofthe length ofthe day
Thymus
i
Immune system gland
ii.
Site where T-lymphocytes mature
VII. Nervous System
A.
Central NeIVOUS System
1.
Brain - thinking and control of body activities
a.
Two hemispheres which perform thinking and memory
b.
Hemispheres are connected by the corpus (,"&1l06UlD
2.
CerebeDmn • balance
3.
MeduDa oblongata - controls autonomic nervous system
a.
Upper end ofthe spinal cord
b.
Spinal cord transmits information to the rest ofthe nelVOus system
4.
Thalamus • processes sensory information
5.
Hypothalamus - controls basic needs and emotions
B.
Peripheral Nervous System
1.
The Neuron is the ceD oCthe nervous system.
2.
N~ fibeB transmit impulses to various parts oCthe body.
3.
Impulses are propagated by changes in ions on the surface of the axon.
4.
Sensory neurons transmit information from sense organs to the central nervous system.
5.
Motor neurons transmit commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
6.
A reflex arc is a nervous transmission that does not include the brain.
C. Autonoinic Nervous System
1.
Ganglion cells are used in the Autonomic Nervous System.
2.
Sympathetic division
•
a.
Stimulated by noradrenalin
b.
Speeds up the internal otgmlS
3.
Parasympathe1U: division
a.
Stimulated by actylchoJme
b.
Slows down the int1::mal 0IgaI15
VIII. Musculoskeletal system
A.
The skeleton
1.
2.
Axial skeleton· skull. spinal column and ribs
Appendicular skeleton • bones of the arms and legs
B.
Bone structure
.
1.
Bone ceDs in a matrix of calcium phosphate
2.
Haversian canal system provides blood supply
3.
Compact bone is dense - Spongy bone has spaces in it
C.
Muscles
1.
2.
3.
4.
Made ofproteins actin and myosin
Three types - striated, smooth, cardiao
Provided in pairs - one muscle contracts whDe the other is relaxed
Tendons COJUlect muscles to bones • ligaments connect bones to each other