Download Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension, and Need

ISSN: 2232-0172
Vol 4 Issue 2, August 2014
pp. 135–146
A Contemporary Business Journal
Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension,
and Need for Affiliation:
Difference between Social Networking Site Users
and Non-users
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh*
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Saeed Pahlevan Sharif & Khong Kok Wei
Taylor’s Business School, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Hossein Emami
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Sciences and Research Branch
of the Islamic Azad University, Iran
© The Author(s) 2014. This article is published with open access by Taylor’s Press.
Abstract: Nowadays, people are increasingly using social networking sites to initiate and maintain
friendships, obtain social support and gather data. Personal traits could potentially drive people
to join social networking sites as well as indulge in other related behaviors. This study aims to
examine whether people with the need for affiliation, narcissism, self- esteem and communication
apprehension are more likely to join social networking sites. Data for the current study were
collected using convenience sampling; the sample consisted of undergraduate students studying
at three private universities in Tehran, Iran. We used IBM SPSS 20 to run logistic regression
statistics to test the research hypotheses developed for this study based on the responses from 284
respondents. The results of this study reveal that self-esteem, communication apprehension and
the need for affiliation are significant predictors for social networking site usage while narcissism
is not.
ey words: Social networking sites, narcissism, self-esteem, communication apprehension, &
need for affiliation.
EL classification: L20
*
Correspondence: Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.
Email : [email protected]
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
135
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Khong Kok Wei & Hossein Emami
1. INTRODUCTION
Social networking sites are defined as web-based services that allow individuals to (1)
construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other
users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections’’
(Boyd & Ellison, 2007, p. 211). Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007) identified that social
networking sites are used to maintain relationships, connect with individuals having shared
interests, and begin romantic relationships. Social networking sites are also used to gather
personal information about other users (Urista, Dong, & Day, 2008).
Literature on social networking sites has grown in recent years and numerous studies
have examined several dimensions of online social networking adoption. People join online
social networking sites to keep in touch with their friends, form new friendships, and make
plans with friends to obtain social support (Lenhart & Madden, 2007) due to their need for
affiliation, self-esteem, narcissism and communication apprehension (Ridings & Gefen, 2004;
Boyd & Ellison, 2007). However, very little is known regarding the influence of these factors
on Iranian university students joining online social networking sites. The main objective of
the current study is to examine the role of self-esteem, need for affiliation, narcissism, and
communication apprehension in joining social networking sites for this group.
2. LITERATURE AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Narcissism
Narcissism is accounted for a legitimate characteristic. It is characterized by an inflated selfconcept or self-view, usually an extrovert and having admiration of one’s physical appearance
(Brown & Zeigler, 2004). In order to maintain an inflated self-concept, narcissists rely on
multiple strategies including exhibitionist behaviors (Twenge & Campbell, 2003). Foster and
Campbell (2007) believe that narcissists have a positive but an unreal self-concept; they are
also less interested in making strong interpersonal relationships and instead use strategies
to approve their positive self-perspective. Narcissists are people who draw others’ attention
and worry about their physical appearance and try to look fashionable as much as possible
( azire & Gosling, 2004). Narcissists are very skillful at getting along in new social situations
and relationships. However, they make use of their relationships to reinforce their position
and positive perspectives for themselves (Campbell & Foster, 2007).
Social networking sites are a good context to examine narcissism due to a number of
reasons. Firstly, narcissism is correlated with being loved in relationships as well as superficial
interactions and interpersonal communication (Oltmanns, Friedman, Fiedler & Turkheimer,
2004). Literature shows that since social networking sites reinforce big networks of weak
relations (Hoffman, 2008), they are ideal settings to present narcissism behaviors. Secondly,
social networking sites allow users to promote themselves through information they have
selected to post in the site. Similarly, social networking sites provide a simple way for a
narcissist to exhibit self-promoting and self-presenting behaviors. Since social networking
sites are suitable platforms for people who are inclined to attract others’ attention and seek
their approval, they are considered a valuable and beneficial source for those who portray
narcissism (Boyd & Ellison, 2007). According to Goodstein (2007), young people use social
136
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension, and Need for Affiliation:
Difference between Social Networking Site Users and Non-users
networking sites to present themselves to their peer groups. Studies found that those who
are narcissist have a higher tendency to do social activities and present more self-promoting
behaviors. Buffardi and Campbell (2008) suggested that social networking sites also provide
an ideal platform for self-regulating because these sites allow people to control their selfpresentation and maintain their social status for superficial relationships. Based on the
literature reviewed above, the following hypothesis was developed:
H1: Those with strong narcissism characteristics would more likely be online social
networking site users.
2.2 Self-esteem
Self-esteem refers to “the subjective evaluation a person makes and maintains about himself
or herself and the extent of belief in their capability, worth, and significance, which is
conveyed through their attitudes and verbal behavior”(Wilson, Fornasier, & White, 2010,
p. 1). It is an overall self-evaluation of one’s worth. In recent years, self-esteem has been
examined in the context of social networking site usage. However, studies have revealed both
the absence and presence of the influence of self-esteem on social networking site-related
behaviors. A study showed that as the self-esteem level increases, time spent on Facebook per
session and the number of Facebook logins per day decrease (Mehdizadeh, 2010). Similarly,
Kalpidou, Costin, and Morris (2011) found a negative correlation between self-esteem
and minutes spent on Facebook. Young people with low self-esteem take advantage of
Facebook as it helps them expand their social relations (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007).
alkenburg, Peter and Schouten (2006) found that people with higher levels of self-esteem
have higher number of friends in their social networking account. The study also found
that online social networking users who receive more positive feedback from their friends
have higher levels of self-esteem ( alkenburg, Peter & Schouten, 2006). Similarly, Banczyk,
Kramer and Senokozlieva (2008) showed that social networking sites users who have high
self-esteem are more likely to show positive self-presentation behaviors. On the other hand,
Kramer & Winter (2008) found no relationship between self-esteem and self-presentation
behavior in social networking sites. Similarly, Wilson et al. found (2010) no link between selfesteem and online social networking. The self-esteem level of each individual varies, thus
its influence on related online social networking behavior such as the likelihood of joining
social networking sites could be different as well. Therefore, based on the literature reviewed
above, the following hypothesis was suggested:
H2: Those with higher self-esteem would more likely be online social networking site users.
2.3 Communication Apprehension
Communication apprehension refers to trait-level anxiety about communicating with other
people and can occur in different settings such as public space, small group, meeting or
dyadic (McCroskey, 1982). A study showed that communication apprehension can influence
communicative behaviors such as communication avoidance (McCroskey & Beatty, 1986).
On the other hand, it can lead to relationship development (Buss, 1984). In recent years,
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
137
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Khong Kok Wei & Hossein Emami
communication apprehension has been studied in online contexts. It is argued that the
online environment allows people with communication apprehension to interact with
others in a stress-free manner (Lemieux, 2007). Mazur, Burns and Emmers-Somer (2000)
found that individuals with high levels of communication apprehension presented more
online relationship formation and higher levels of interdependence with their relational
partner. Zhang, Tang, and Leung (2011) also found that communication apprehension was
a strong predictor of Facebook usage and gratification. People portray different levels of
communication apprehension; therefore, they are expected to present different behaviors
with regard to joining social networking sites. It can be assumed that for individuals with
higher levels of communication apprehension, their likelihood of joining online social
networking is higher. Based on this assumption and prior research results, the following
hypothesis was proposed:
H3: Those with high communication apprehension would more likely be online social
networking site users.
2 4 Need for Affiliation
As Baumesiter and Leary (1995) stated, “human beings have a pervasive drive to form
and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal
relationships” (p. 497). In most communication processes, communicators look for an
opportunity to meet their need for affiliation (McCroskey & Wheeles, 1976). The need for
affiliation is defined as the extent to which a person enjoys being with others and attempts
to make friends with them (Jackson, 1984). Individuals with a strong need for affiliation
are more likely to be more extroverted, popular and social (Mehrabian & Ksionzky, 1970).
The need for affiliation also provides the foundation for interpersonal communication and
contains three essential needs: 1) the need for inclusion is the need to establish and maintain a
satisfactory relation with people in regard to interaction and association. Inclusion behaviors
involve association, interaction, and communication between people; 2) the need for control
is the need to establish and maintain a satisfactory relation with people in regard to control
and power and refers to the desire to make a difference in a social environment and to
have an impact over occurrences. Control behaviors consist predominantly of decisionmaking actions to exercise authority, dominance, and influence; 3) the need for affection is
the need to establish and maintain a satisfactory relation with others in regard to love and
affection. The need for affection refers to the desire to experience interpersonal satisfaction
and warmth from human contact. Affection behaviors involve close, personal and emotional
feelings generated between two people (Schutz, 1966).
Social networking sites increasingly provide social connections to meet the need for
affiliation. These sites allow users to have conversations, collect data, obtain social approval,
express their thoughts and opinions and influence others. Joining social networking sites
helps to gratify the need for inclusion, affection and control. Individuals may join online
social networking sites such as Facebook and Google+ to form new relationships, maintain
old relations and stay in the friendship loop, with no concern about restrictions of time and
space (Ridings & Gefen, 2004). As the level of need for affiliation varies among individuals, it
affects each one differently in the likelihood of them joining social networking sites. In other
138
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension, and Need for Affiliation:
Difference between Social Networking Site Users and Non-users
words, there is a higher probability that individuals will join online social networking sites
if they portray a higher level of need for affiliation. Based on this literature, the following
hypothesis was proposed:
H4: Those with a stronger need for affiliation would more likely be online social networking
site users.
3. METHODOLOGY
Data for the current study were collected in 2011 from Iranian students who are pursuing
their degrees in three private universities located in Tehran. The study sample was selected
using the random sampling method. A questionnaire that measured the need for affiliation,
self-esteem, narcissism and communication apprehension was used to collect the required
data. SPSS 20 was used to analyse a total of 284 usable responses to test the proposed
hypotheses.
Of the 40 items measuring narcissism that were developed by Raskin and Terry (1988),
15 items relevant to the subject being investigated were adopted to measure the respondents’
narcissism level. Self-esteem was measured by 10 items developed by Rosenberg (1965). Nine
items developed by Jackson (1984) were modified and used to measure need for affiliation.
To measure communication apprehension, seven items developed by McCroskey (1982) were
used. All the items of these constructs were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (strongly
disagree=1 to strongly agree = 7) (see Appendix A).
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the respondents’ demographics
Gender (n=284)
Male
Female
Marital status (n=284)
Single
Married
Age (n=284)
18-24
25-31
32-38
Joined social networking sites (n=99)
Yes
No
Hour(s) spent on social networking sites, daily (n=99)
Less than one hour
1-2 hours
2-3 hours
>3 hours
Frequency
Percentage
121
163
42.6
57.4
248
36
87.3
12.7
237
43
4
83.45
15
1.5
99
185
34.85
65.15
34
56
7
2
34
57
7
2
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
139
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Khong Kok Wei & Hossein Emami
As shown in Table 1, most respondents were female (57.4%), single (87.3%) and
belonged to the 18 - 24 age group (83.45%). Of the 284 respondents, 99 (34.85%) were
social networking site users. With regard to the hour(s) spent on online social networking
sites, the highest percentage of respondents (57%) reported that they spend 1 to 2 hours a
day on social networking sites.
It should be noted that the data used for the current study were collected in 2011 in Iran
where online social networking sites were blocked due to a political crackdown. Many people
took a conservative approach by not disclosing that they are online social networking users.
Therefore, the number of people who reported that they were online social networking users
was remarkably lower than expected.
4. DATA ANALYSIS
The dependent variable in this study is a dichotomous variable with a value of zero for those
who are online social networking site users (represents 34.6% of the respondents) and the
value of one represents inactive users (65.4%). Independent variables were measured using a
7-point Likert scale. We used Anderson-Rubin’s method to calculate the factor score for the
independent variables (Field, 2010). Then, we examined the correlation among the variable
factors and dependent variable using Pearson correlation. As shown in Table 1, social
networking usage has a significant negative relationship with communication apprehension
at the 95% confidence level (r = -0.16, p-value = 0.01). In addition, since there is no high
correlation among independent variables (varies between -0.15 and 0.21), this implies that
there is no multicollinearity issue.
Table 2. Pearson correlation among variables
(i)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Social networking usage
1
Need for affiliation
09(0.15)
1
Self-esteem
0.0.08(0.20) 0.21(0.00)
1
Narcissism
0.10(0.11) –0.12(0.05) –0.10(0.09)
1
Communication apprehension –0.16(0.01) 0.12(0.04) 0.45(0.00) –0.15(0.01) 1
To test the research hypotheses, we employed logistic regression using IBM SPSS 20.
The results are shown in Table 2. The results indicate that the need for affiliation (coefficient
= 0.27, p-value = 0.05), self-esteem (coefficient = 0.70, p-value = 0.01), and communication
apprehension (coefficient = 0.82, p-value = 0.00) are significant predictors for online social
networking site usage. The odd ratio shows that online social networking users have 1.31
times higher need for affiliation (odd ratio = 1.31, 95% confidence interval = 1.00 to 1.71)
and 1.55 times more self-esteem (odd ratio = 1.55, 95% confidence interval = 1.13 to 2.13)
than non-users. Moreover, the online social networking users’ communication apprehension
is revealed to be almost half of that of non-users (odd ratio = 0.56, 95% confidence interval
= 0.40 to 0.77).
140
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension, and Need for Affiliation:
Difference between Social Networking Site Users and Non-users
Table 3. Results of hypotheses testing
Independent variables Reliability
Need for affiliation
Self-esteem
Narcissism
Communication
apprehension
Constant
95% C.I. for
Exp(B)
Lower Upper
B
S.E
Wald
p-value
Exp(B)
0.71
0.70
0.77
0.82
0.27
0.44
0.24
–0.59
0.14
0.16
0.15
0.17
3.84
7.25
2.60
12.47
0.05
0.01
0.11
0.00
1.31
1.55
1.27
0.56
1.00
1.13
0.95
0.40
1.71
2.13
1.69
0.77
n/a
– 0.64 0.14
22.08
0.00
0.53
n/a
n/a
Note: B represents coefficient; S.E. represents standard error; and C.I. represents confidence interval.
-2log-likelihood statistics = 325.19; Cox & Snell R2 = 7.78%; Nagelkerke R2 = 10.68%
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The study hypothesized that social networking site users would be more narcissistic compared
to non-users. The relevant findings show that narcissism does not significantly predict the
likelihood of joining social networking sites. However, social networking sites provide an
ideal environment to present and promote narcissistic behaviors in communication and
interpersonal interactions, which are less likely to happen in face-to-face communication.
The results of this study are inconsistent with prior studies which revealed that narcissist
individuals are drawn to social networking sites (Boyd & Elison, 2007; Buffardi & Campel,
2008).
The current study also hypothesized that those with high self-esteem are more likely
to be online social networking site users. This hypothesis was supported by the findings,
indicating that compared to non-users, online social networking users possess a higher level
of self-esteem. The result concurs with past studies which revealed that self-esteem has a
positive influence on behaviors related to social networking sites. For example, the higher the
number of friends users have in their account, the more positive self-presentation behaviors
these users display in their online social networking (Valkenburg, Peter & Schouten, 2006;
Banczyk, Kramer & Senokozlieva, 2008).
Regarding the role of communication apprehension, the findings revealed that a high
level of communication apprehension does not predict the likelihood of one joining online
social networking sites. In fact, communication apprehension is negatively correlated with
joining social networking sites. As communication apprehension increases, the likelihood
of joining social networking sites decreases. In other words, an individual with a low level
of communication apprehension is more likely to join social networking sites. However,
Lemieux (2007) found that those with communication apprehension tend to interact with
others using online social networking sites. Similarly, Mazur, Burns and Emmers-Somer
(2000) showed that a high level of communication apprehension encourages people to form
more online relationships.
The results also show that respondents who have a strong need for affiliation are more
likely to be online social networking users, indicating that the tendency to belong, love and
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
141
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Khong Kok Wei & Hossein Emami
be loved prompts people to communicate and maintain effective communication by joining
social networking sites. This result lends support to prior studies which found that online
social networking acceptance is significantly influenced by a strong need for affiliation to
gratify the need to make friends and use social support (Ridings & Gefen, 2004). In short,
social networking sites provide an environment where people readily satisfy their need for
affiliation and there is a greater chance that an individual with a strong need for affiliation is
usually an online social networking user.
Open Access: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (CC-BY 4.0) which permits any use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author(s) and the source are credited.
References
Banczyk, B., Kramer, N. C. & Senokozlieva, M. (2008). “the wurst meets “fatless” in MySpace:
The relationship between personality, nationality and self-presentation in an online community. Paper
presented at the annual conference of the International Communication Association,
Montreal, Canada.
Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal
attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.
Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship.
Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13(1), 210–230.
Brown, R. P., & Zeigler-Hill, . (2004). Narcissism and the non-equivalence of self-esteem
measures: A matter of dominance? Journal of Research in Personality, 38(6), 585–592.
Buffardi, L., & Campbell, W. (2008). Narcissism and social networking web sites. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(10), 1303–1314.
Buss, A. (1984). A conception of shyness. In J.A. Daly & J.C. McCroskey (Eds.), Avoiding
communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension (pp. 34–39). Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage Publications
Ellison, N., Steinfield, C, & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “Friends”: Social
capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 12(4), 1143–1168.
Field, A. (2010). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. London: Sage Publications
Foster, J. D. & Campbell, W. K. (2007). Are there such things as “Narcissists” in social
psychology? A taxometric analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Personality
and Individual Differences, 43(6), 1321–1332.
Goodstein, A. (2007). Totally wired: What teens and tweens are really doing online. New York:
Martin’s Press.
Hoffman, P. (2008). But are we really friends?’ Online social networking and community in
undergraduate students. Available from Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 69.
(UMI No. 3323971)
Jackson, D. N. (1984). Personality research form manual. Port Huron, Michigan: Research
Psychologists Press.
142
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension, and Need for Affiliation:
Difference between Social Networking Site Users and Non-users
Kalpidou, M., Costin, D., & Morris, J. (2011). The relationship between Facebook and
the well-being of undergraduate college students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social
Networking, 14(4), 183-189.
Kramer, N., & Winter, S. (2008). Impression management 2.0: The relationship of selfesteem, extraversion, self-efficacy, and self-presentation within social networking sites.
Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 20(3), 106–116.
Lemieux, R. A. (2007). Will the real amie Marple please stand up ffinity seeking social loneliness
and social avoidance among Facebook users. Paper presented at the conference of the Eastern
Communication Association, Boston, MA
Lenhart, A. & Madden, M. (2007). Social networking websites and teens: An overview. Washington,
D.C.: Pew Internet and American Life Project
McCroskey, J. C. (1982). An introduction to rhetorical communication (4th ed). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McCroskey, J. C., & Beatty, M. J. (1986). Oral communication apprehension. In Jones, Warren
H., Cheek, Jonathan M., Briggs, Stephen R. (Eds.), Shyness (pp. 279–293). NY: Springer
US.
McCroskey, J. C, & Wheeless, L. R. (1976). An introduction to human communication. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Mazur, M. A., Burns, R. J., & Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2000). Perceptions of relational
interdependence in online relationships: The effects of communication apprehension
and introversion. Communication Research Reports, 17(4), 397–406.
Mehdizadeh, S. (2010). Self-presentation 2.0: Narcissism and self-esteem on Facebook
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(4), 357–364
Mehrabian, A., & Ksionzky, S. (1970). Models for affiliative and conformity behavior.
Psychological Bulletin, 74(2), 110.
Oltmanns, T. F., Friedman, J. N., Fiedler, E. R., & Turkheimer, E. (2004). Perceptions of
people with personality disorders based on thin slices of behavior. Journal of Research in
Personality, 38, 216–229.
Raskin, R., & Terry, H. (1988). A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality
Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54(5), 890-902.
Ridings, C, & Gefen, D. (2004). irtual community attraction: Why people hang out online.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10(1). doi: 10.1111/j.1083- 6101.2004.
tb00229.x
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Schutz, W.C. (1966), The interpersonal underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, K. (2003). “Isn’t it fun to get the respect that we’re going to
deserve?” Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 29(2), 261–272.
Urista, M. A., Dong, Q., & Day, K. D. (2008). Explaining why young adults use MySpace and
Facebook through uses and gratifications theory. Human Communication, 12(2), 215–229.
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
143
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Khong Kok Wei & Hossein Emami
Valkenburg, P., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. (2006). Friend networking sites and their relationship
to adolescents’ well-being and social self-esteem. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9(5),
584–590.
azire, S., & Gosling, S. (2004). e-Perceptions: Personality impressions based on personal
websites. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(1), 123-132.
Wilson, K., Fornasier, S., & White, K. M. (2010). Psychological predictors of young adults’
use of social networking sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(2),
173–177.
Zhang Yin, Tang, L.S-T, & Leung, L. (2011). Gratifications, collective self-esteem, online
emotional openness, and traitlike communication apprehension as predictors of
Facebook uses. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(12), 733–739.
144
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
Narcissism, Self-esteem, Communication Apprehension, and Need for Affiliation:
Difference between Social Networking Site Users and Non-users
APPENDIX A
Self-esteem
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
I am able to do things as well as most other people.
I take a positive attitude toward myself.
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
I wish I could have more respect for myself.
I certainly feel useless at times.
At times, I think I am no good at all.
Narcissism
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
I know that I am good because everybody keeps telling me so.
I like to be the center of attention.
I think I am a special person.
I like having authority over people.
I am apt to show off if I get the chance.
I expect a great deal from other people.
I am going to be a great person.
I am more capable than other people.
I am an extraordinary person.
Need for affiliation
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
I like to go to places and settings with lots of people.
In my leisure time, I prefer to do things together with others.
I cannot stand being alone.
I really prefer to stay as short a time as possible at occasions where there are lots of
people.
It sounds awful to have a job in which you are alone in a room the whole day.
I find it stressful to have people around me constantly.
I like to talk to others.
I love teamwork.
I don’t like to undertake something totally on my own.
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014
145
Ashraf Sadat Ahadzadeh, Saeed Pahlevan Sharif, Khong Kok Wei & Hossein Emami
Communication apprehension
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
146
Social interaction makes me anxious.
I experience anxiety when I communicate with people in social settings.
I tend to be very apprehensive while communicating in social situations.
Social interaction is the best part of my day.
I seldom feel anxious in social situations.
I am outgoing when surrounded by a lot of people.
I can communicate with people in social settings without experiencing anxiety.
Taylor’s Business Review, Vol. 4 Issue 2, August 2014