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PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING CIE A2 Level- Educational Psychology CIE Syllabus Component Topic 1: Behaviorist Applications to Learning Topic 2: Humanistic Applications to Learning Underlying Theory (Classical & Operant Conditioning) Applications of Behaviorism in Schools Programmed Learning & Behavior Modification Techniques Underlying Theory (Rogers) Applications of Humanism in Schools Co-operative Learning, Learning Circles, & Open Classroom Topic 3: Cognitive Applications to Learning Underlying Theory (Piaget) Applications of Cognitive Theory Discovery learning (Bruner), Expository Teaching (Ausubel), ZPD (Vygotsky) CIE Syllabus Component Topic 1: Behaviorist Applications to Learning Underlying Theory (Classical & Operant Conditioning) Applications of Behaviorism in Schools Programmed Learning (Skinner) Behavior Modification Techniques Underlying Theory: Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Concept of Conditioning Defined: as the process of learning associations In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two stimuli together and thus to anticipate events Is an involuntary response In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences and thus we tend to repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishments Is a voluntary response Underlying Theory: Classical Conditioning The association that an organism makes with a stimulus Credited to Ivan Pavlov’s work with dog salivation Was a Russian physiologist (not psychologist) Pavlov stumbled upon this- the dogs continually would salivate when certain stimuli were around and caused invalid data Discovery around 1890 Pavlov’s Experiment Insert video here Underlying Theory: Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR) = in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth Neutral Stimulus (NS) = an environmental condition that in itself does not illicit a response. Becomes the CS. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = an originally neutral stimulus that comes to illicit a response due to its association with a UCS Conditioned Response (CR) = the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Underlying Theory: Classical Conditioning In Pavlov's experiment… Neutral Stimulus (NS): tuning fork/bell/meat powder Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): presentation of food Unconditioned Response (UCR): salivation NSCS Conditioned Stimulus (CS): tuning fork/bell/meat powder Conditioned Response (CR): salivation Underlying Theory: Classical Conditioning Generalization Responding in a similar (if not identical) manner to a similar (but still different) NS after conditioning has taken place Discrimination Responding differently (or not responding at all) to a similar stimuli Such as Pavlov’s dogs salivating to curry powder instead of meat powder Such as Pavlov’s dogs becoming alert but not salivating to baking soda instead of the meat powder Extinction The gradual disappearance of a learned response Occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly but not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) For example, ringing the bell (CS) and not presenting food over and over Underlying Theory: Classical Conditioning (Watson, 1920) In Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment… UCS = loud noise (banging metal poles) UCR = crying to the loud noise Neutral stimulus = the white rat NSCS CS = the white rat CR = crying to the rat GS = the rabbit or dog (or similar animals) Underlying Theory: Operant Conditioning Based on the work of B.F. Skinner (1953) Considered the Father of Operant Conditioning Based his work on the Thorndike’s Law of Effect Skinner Basics for the Classroom Believed that all learning occurs as a result of experience Believed that rewards and punishments drive our learning Believed that cognitive processes were useless Underlying Theory: Operant Conditioning Principles of Reinforcement Positive reinforcement = providing a wanted stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior Negative reinforcement = taking away an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior *Skinner argued that reinforcement was more effective than punishment in educational settings Underlying Theory: Operant Conditioning Principles of Punishment Presentation punishment- presenting an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior Removal punishment- removing a wanted stimulus to decrease a behavior Punishment It has a better probability of working when: is immediate It is intense A better alternative behaviors is also presented Practice Create two scenarios where classical conditioning may affect a person's education (leading to either good or bad consequences). In your answer, make sure you use the terms of classical conditioning. Create four scenarios where operant conditioning could be used in schools. This could involve either reinforcement or punishment and lead to either good or bad consequences. Underlying Theory: Behaviorism for the Classroom Behaviorists focused on observable actions, stimuli, & response Belief in learning by association, wanted to provide explanations of how experience could change behavior (without cognitive aspects) In applying to an educational setting, they focus on changing environmental stimuli to achieve desired outcomes Class settings/conditions, teaching methodologies (instruction), student goals, student & teacher behaviors, and similar aspects Examples: From CC: an inviting classroom may trigger increased student motivation and achievement based on positive emotional response From OC: positive reinforcement (a sticker!) for correct answer Behaviorist Applications to the Classroom: Programmed Learning (Skinner, 1958) Aim: to shape behavior (learning) into predetermined patterns by strengthening stimulus-response bonds Programmed learning has three elements: (1) it delivers information in small bites (2) it is self-paced by the learner (3) it provides immediate feedback, both positive and negative, to the learner Popular in the late 1960s and through the 1970s, but pedagogical interest was lost in the early 1980s Teaching Machine & Programmed Learning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTH3ob1IRFo#t =157 Behaviorist Applications to the Classroom: Programmed Learning Designed to improve teaching methods for spelling, math, and other school subjects Utilizes a mechanical device Skinner thought this could be superior to traditional teacher-based instruction b/c students were rewarded immediately & individually for correct answers rather than waiting for a teacher to correct written answers or respond verbally Students punched answers to simple problems into a type of ‘keyboard’ If the student's answer was correct it is positively reinforced by this progress to the next frame; if not, the student immediately sees the correct answer. Behaviorist Applications to the Classroom: Programmed Learning Methodology involves self-administered and self-paced learning Student is presented with information in small steps often referred to as "frames“ Each frame contains a small segment of the information to be learned, and a question which the student must answer Because of active student participation, small steps, immediate feedback, and reinforcement, programmed learning can be very effective. (Entwistle, 1994) 2 types: linear model and branched model Programmed Learning: Linear Model Linear programming immediately reinforces student responses that are correct Each bit of information is presented in a "frame" Student who makes a correct response proceeds to the next frame. All students work through the same sequence Programmed Learning: Branched Model If a student responds incorrectly, s/he will either be returned to the original frame, or routed through a subprogram designed to remedy the deficiency indicated by the wrong choice This process is repeated at each step throughout the program, and a student may be exposed to differing amounts of material depending upon errors made. Compared to the linear model, branching one allows for the assessing of understanding of the student and allows for the additional learning as needed Sample Issue/Debate: Application of Programmed Learning Strengths of Programmed Learning Helps to break down large amount of info into smaller, more manageable chunks for students to comprehend Focuses on the topic at hand and attempts to remove other distracters and/or the reinforcement of negative behaviors May alleviate issues of student frustration with a fast or slow paced instruction Provides reinforcement for all students, not just the ones always being called on Research has shown that it is often as successful (or more than) as traditional teacher-based learning (Bower, 1981) Sample Issue/Debate: Application of Programmed Learning Weaknesses of Programmed Learning Not all subjects can be broken down into small bits of info or taught effectively in this manner Does not account for social process of education and mostly eliminates the student-teacher interaction Process can be ‘robotic’ and not interesting or motivating May focus on clear-cut questions rather than abstract ones Does not account for cognitive processes May be inclined for lower-level subjects and/or students Once extrinsic reward is removed, may lose effect Behaviorist Applications to the Classroom: Behavior Modification Techniques Research has shown that a few behaviorist techniques are effective when applied (and carried out) properly Desists- verbal & nonverbal communications used to stop behavior (“the shh” and “the look” for example) Timeout- isolation from others or class removal (typically for K-5) Detention- extra time at school, best when enforced right (6-12) Response costs- removal of reinforcers that have already been given (removal of stickers or homework passes) Reprimands: criticism for misbehavior of a student Can be both verbal and non-verbal cues Quietly reprimanding a student is more effective than public humiliation Behaviorist Applications to the Classroom: Behavior Modification Techniques Contingency Contract Programs A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege. Token reinforcement system “Tokens” for a academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward (the toy box program) This can help to: Show students that hard work can pay off Motivate students who are completely uninterested in their work Motivate disruptive students to keep to behavioral guidelines Has been shown to be effective in the school setting O’Leary & Becker (1967)- 1st study in schools with positive outcomes for grades, attendance, and behavior improvements Behaviorist Sample Issue/Debate: Evaluating Behaviorist Approach in Schools Strengths Brings unwanted behavior to the attention of the student(s) and teacher Hopefully stop the behavior or prevent in the 1st place Points out to others what is acceptable (NOT social learning) Can be effective when applied properly, sincerely, & fairly Token reinforcement has shown to be effective (O’Leary & Becker, 1967) and can generalize to other parts of school Programmed learning has shown to be effective Behaviorist Sample Issue/Debate: Evaluating Behaviorist Approach in Schools Weaknesses Theory itself fails to accept cognitive influences of learning and social learning What may work as an effective reward or punishment for one student may not for another Negative consequences may lead to more negative attitudes (and behavior) to authority figures and school overall Punishment by itself does not improve behavior as it does not show an appropriate alternative Practice Explain in your own words what is meant by the ‘behaviourist’ approach to learning. Describe two ways in which the behaviourist approach has been applied in education. Provide two criticisms of the behaviourist approach in education. CIE Syllabus Component Topic 2: Humanistic Applications to Learning Underlying Theory (Rogers) Applications of Humanism in Schools Co-operative Learning Learning Circles Open Classroom (Summerhill School example) Underlying Theory: Rogers Humanistic perspective focuses on the individual/self Rogers (1951) said that education should fit the learner, rather than trying to fit learners in an education system in a way which often results in rebellion of the ‘crushing of creative & critical thought’ We are all unique, no general explanations of human behavior The theory emphasized people's goodness, freedom to choose, and the desire to be better people In learning, the focus is on how the whole individual develops and how we acquire knowledge in the process Schooling should in part focus on topics students want to learn about, rather than what is mandated Underlying Theory: Rogers ‘Process Education’- idea that a teacher should be a facilitator (rather than instructor) and that the process of learning is more important than the end result Says that learning about dates, facts, etc is given too much focus when students should also learn about caring for others, gaining insight about oneself, & developing positive values Traditional schools fail to recognize the uniqueness of students Intrinsic rewards are preferred over irrelevant grades Need to balance traditional topics with intellectual & emotional components of learning Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to personal interests Underlying Theory: Rogers Said that humanistic approach in the classroom centers around problem-solving skills & builds on the natural potentials of learners Idea that students are self-motivated to develop & learn Subject matter should be relevant Self-evaluation should be encouraged Student should feel safe & secure Experiential learning (learning from doing) should be promoted over formal instruction Helps to develop independence, creativity, & self-reliance Says THIS prepares students to deal with changes in life Notion that education is not about test results- instead it is about developing the potential of the student Design a Humanist School Be Creative… Humanistic Application to the Classroom: Co-operative Learning Students are grouped together (4 students typically) with a certain goal(s) to complete that also enhances one’s personal academic goals Advantages Jigsaw technique (Johnson & Johnson, 1992)- each student is either given a specific role to accomplish within a group Goals/rewards depend on the performance & contribution of group members. Requires no major restructuring of school day Advances the cooperation among students of different abilities, ethnic backgrounds, ages, and gender (improves interpersonal & teamwork skills) Disadvantages Some students waste time talking about non-relevant matters Some members dominate, others are ignored Humanistic Application to the Classroom: Learning Circles Students are heterogeneously grouped with the aim of learning from each other and completing tasks together Can be accomplished either as a within-group focused goal or as a goal that each group competes with others to complete Aside from the group grade, students are accountable for their own learning through tests/quizzes/other assignments Slavin (1983) said that learning circles enables students to see learning as an autonomous social activity Electronic Learning Circles Riel (1990) noted that both teachers and students benefit from the increased communication from others with different backgrounds/experiences by developing new instructional strategies, an increase in motivation, an increase in self-esteem, and better teacher-student and student-student relationships Humanistic Application to the Classroom: Open Classrooms (Open-space schools are multiple classes without defining walls) An ‘classroom’ where large groups of mixed-ability and mixedage children work together in a single, large room with different ‘areas’ There may be multiple projects and/or teaching methods at same time Students have freedom to choose what they will study Students are encouraged to engage in discovery/research activities Stresses the importance of studying subject areas that are integrated across curriculum (like how history & science go together) Students work individually and/or in small groups as they choose Humanistic Application to the Classroom: Open Classrooms Students have access to a wide variety of learning materials Teachers act as facilitators who guide students in their work Provide assistance when needed De-emphasize grades and standardized tests Dennison (1969)- in the US, found that open classrooms were beneficial for student academic success, self-esteem, and overall well-being http://www.summerhillschool.co.uk/ Humanistic Application to the Classroom: Open Classrooms- Summerhill Founded in 1921 with the purpose of providing a place of learning based upon the freedom to study what you want and in which manner It is a ‘self-governing, democratic school’ where students “learn best with freedom from coercion” and where all members of the school community have an equal vote in the outcomes Students decide if/when to go to class & what to do with their time all members vote on school rules & ways that the school functions Students thus have a say in what they learn, how they learn it, and how they judge the success of their actions The principle is that you can do as you please, so long as it doesn't cause harm to others Children placed according to ability rather than age Section B Practice Section B: 2a) question: describe what psychologists have discovered about the humanistic approach to learning[8] Paragraph 1: name/define underlying theories Paragraph 2: name/define applications Sample Issue/Debate: Evaluating Humanistic Theory in Schools Strengths of Humanistic Approach to Schooling Theory takes a holistic approach to education and learning Idea that schooling should be focused around the needs of the student (instead of the needs of the school) Working on a soft carpet with papers spread out all around you? Listening to your ipod (and facebooking, texting, talking on the phone, eating, drinking, sleeping, etc.), learning via books and class notes or from a tablet? Traditional schools overwhelmingly fail to recognize this and thus, some kids are setup to lose interest/fail/frustrated from the start Can be effective for students who do not do well in traditional setting Dunn & Griggs (1988)- visited 10 humanistic style schools Noted that students performed just as well in academics Many students passed subjects where they failed before Majority of students noted that they were more excited about school Sample Issue/Debate: Evaluating Humanistic Theory in Schools Weaknesses of Humanistic Approach to Schooling Issue of feasibility on large scale and with different students Often viewed as too student-centered and detracts from preparing students to deal with the “real world” Criticized for not preparing for the workplace May be too subjective in evaluating what a student learned Many are not trained to teach in such manners Seen as ‘European notion’ where schools often track students instead of opening school for everyone CIE Syllabus Component Topic 3: Cognitive Applications to Learning Underlying Theory (Piaget) Applications of Cognitive Theory Discovery learning (Bruner) Expository Teaching (Ausubel) Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky) Introduction to Cognitive Theory Cognitive perspective is concerned with how we process, store, and retrieve information In learning, focus is on how we actively obtain, interpret, organize, and use info to make sense of the world around us Curriculum & instruction (C&I) should be organized to allow for relationships with old and new info to take place Learners should be encouraged to “develop strategies that allow effective perception, interpretation, organisation, analysis, evaluation, storage, and retrieval of information” CIE looks at 3 ways to do this: (a) Bruner’s discovery learning (b) Ausubel’s expository teaching & reception learning (c) Vygotsky’s scaffolding & ZPD Underlying Theory: Piaget Piaget based his theory on the beliefs that: Children learn from playing an active role in their environment Children are active in exploring and testing their surroundings in order to make sense of the world Cognitive abilities involve changes in intellectual processes that begin in infancy Intelligence is carried out through organizing and adapting to one’s environment Schemas are the building blocks of thinking Defined as mental structures that contain categories of information, knowledge, perceptions, and ideas that enable us to organize and interpret our experiences Underlying Theory: Piaget To achieve and maintain equilibrium, children use: Organization- the tendency to organize thinking processes into psychological structures Adaptation- the adjustment to the environment and given situations These are accomplished through the use of altering schemas Altering schemas are accomplished in one of two ways: Assimilation- process of fitting new information and experiences into an existing schema (dogs) Accommodation- process of altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information and experiences (cats) ALWAYS assimilate before we accommodate Schema Example http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html (half way down for schema illustration) Underlying Theory: Piaget Belief that children go through 4 stages of cognitive development Stage 1- Sensorimotor- (birth to 2) Infant’s perception is centered on their senses & motor skills Child’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, moving, touching, & tasting Object permanence- ability to remember that an object still exists even when it is not present and child searches for object Stage 2- Preoperational (2-7) Egocentric outlook by child (can only see from their perspective) Problems with conservation task (tall, thin glass vs. short, wider glass) Underlying Theory: Piaget Stage 3- Concrete Operational (7-11) Stage is shaped by the use of logical thought & problem-solving abilities Child is only able to work with concrete ideas Cannot work with ideas that are contrary to the fact or abstract ones Stage 4- Formal Operational (11+) Child is now able to think abstractly, hypothetically, scientifically, and can hypothesize about what would happen We are ‘fully capable’ of complex thought & action and ‘new’ cognitive development comes to a close Ex. Of Conservation Tasks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I Create a Schema Write a paragraph describing a child adapting its understanding of the world due to an experience it has had. Make sure you use the correct terms: –Schema –Assimilation –Disequilibrium –Accommodation –Equilibrium Sample Issue: Evaluation of Theory (Piaget) Strengths Established a baseline for cog development in children and schooling Has increased student-centered practices of discovery learning (hands-on) Notes that children learn in stages- curriculum should then align with this Helped to create the school of constructivism Weaknesses Theory fails to consider the influences of culture on development Not all children are self-motivated- can be issue in application of discovery learning Studies have shown that Piaget underestimates young children (Samuel & Bryant, 1984) and overestimate older children Theory takes a more individualistic approach to education (less social) In the Classroom What do you think Piaget’s theories would look like in the classroom? http://piaget.weebly.com/educational-implications-activities.html Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Bruner’s (1960) Discovery Learning Bruner was heavily influenced by the work of Piaget, but did not believe children’s thinking was restricted to age. Students could be taught at any age He stressed the act of discovery learning- students play an active role in organizing content & information themselves Learners are not simply given the final product- instead, students need to be engaged in tasks that encourage them to find patterns & solve given situations by exercising their schemas Teachers are thus not supposed to just give students info, but to guide them and let them discover for themselves This idea is also known as enquiry. Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Bruner’s Discovery Learning Classroom examples of Discovery Learning In an economics course, students are told that they need open a factory in another country to increase their profit margin Students would have to research potential sites, local laws, shipping costs, labor rates & regulations, and so on in devising the best location for such an undertaking In a psychology course, students are told that they need to devise a treatment plan for a patient with OCD Students would have to research the characteristics of OCD, possible causes, possible treatments, patient’s personal history, and so on in devising a treatment plan Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Bruner’s Discovery Learning Through the use of discovery learning, Bruner believed that any concept could be taught at any age (given it was suitable for the age group) when using a Spiral Curriculum Material is 1st presented in its simplest form, then revisited over and over in more complex detail as students build on previous knowledge Such as introducing +, -, ×, ÷, and then rudimentary algebra Such as ‘4 + x= 5’ instead of the traditional ‘4 + __=5’ During these educative experiences, students build their understanding & use more sophisticated cognitive strategies (leads to increased sophistication of understanding) Curriculum should progress via an active problem-solving process Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Bruner’s Discovery Learning Many of his notions were based on prior congition research and an educational conference he attended in 1959. Discusses much of his concepts in his book “The Process of Education” Sample Issue: Evaluation of Theory (Discovery Learning) Strengths of Discovery Learning Research has shown that this technique is effective for students who are typically self-motivated and are offered guidance from the teacher Discovery learning enables the learner to construct his/her own schemas while organizing info/knowledge in a manner which they understand Promotes the active participation of students Theory is less deterministic than behaviorist theories in the class The theory has been modified and expanded into other constructivist instructional methods, such as PBL (problem-based learning) Sample Issue: Evaluation of Theory (Discovery Learning) Weaknesses of Discovery Learning Can be difficult for students to be ‘self-sufficient’ in their studies Much more difficult if the student never learned like this before For teachers, it may be difficult to refrain from becoming overinvolved as students are completing the work Research has shown that for this to be effective on a large scale, teachers need to actively provide guidance for students Students are more likely to make errors or have misconceptions that are not corrected from the teacher Typically better suited for K-5 teaching- it is typically not advantageous for abstract ideas or higher-level topics (6-12) It can be very time consuming and can cut into curricular pacing Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory (1960) Ausubel believed that student learning is best accomplished when the teacher gives the information in its final form (instead of selfdiscovery)- called this type of learning subsumption Derivative subsumption - deriving material from what you already know- adding info into your pre-existing schemas Very similar to process of assimilation Correlative subsumption - extending what you already know by modifying your pre-existing schemas or making new schemas Very similar to process of accommodation Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory (1960) Expository teaching- teacher gives the learners all the info they need in its final form (reception learning takes place) Believed in this “meaningful learning” where the learner “subsumes” (organizes/incorporates) new info into old info Says that new info must ‘interact’ with previous info Diff. than rote learning- learner actively subsumes the info Diff. than active learning- learner doesn’t need to ‘discover’ the info from problem-solving that may not be correct Ausubel believed that this could best be accomplished through the use advanced organizers use of Venn diagrams, outlines, charts, and course-specific organizers Ausubel (1960)- study of 120 psychology undergrads demonstrated that using advanced organizers promoted higher rates of retention of new information Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective (1978) Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children: can learn at any age with the appropriate support learn by watching & being guided by others (not self-discovery) learn from passed-on knowledge and customs from parents & teachers should be guided in learning about their world (not reaching own conclusions) Emphasized the influence of language during this process For Vygotsky, there are 3 critical aspects: the role of language & social interaction Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Scaffolding Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Vygotsky’s ZPD Zone of Proximal Development- ‘Range’ of tasks & abilities that a child cannot yet perform independently, but can complete when given appropriate help and support Primarily focuses on cognitive abilities that are developing It is the task of caregivers/teachers/others to assist the child At the lower end of ZPD is what the child can do him/herself and at the upper end of ZPD is what s/he can complete with the help Such as being able to do addition but not subtraction yet Once the child is able to complete the task by him/herself (such as subtraction), s/he made a cognitive gain and proceeds to the next ZPD task Cognitive Applications to the Classroom: Vygotsky’s Scaffolding Scaffolding: Assistance by a more competent person that helps the child complete the ZPD task that they wouldn’t be able to complete alone Learner’s current level first needs to be accessed Need to allow learners time to relate new info with prior info Teacher may ask questions to lead child to the answer/solution May also provide examples of similar tasks with example solutions Important part is that the child is guided in how to complete/solve the ZPD task him/herself (not doing it for them) Peer tutoring can be a viable option as sometimes children can understand another child’s p.o.v. better Tharpe & Gallimore (1989)- best teaching practices incorporate teacher-led scaffolding for students’ ZPD Scaffolding in Action The mother models what to do and gives encouragement, so making a cake moves from the ZPD to the ADL Sample Issue/Debate: Evaluation of Theory (Cognitive Education) Strengths of Cognitive Theory in Education Unlike behaviorism, it takes mental processes into account of how we play an active role in receiving, organizing, and retaining information Has consistently been researched & supported for C&I purposes Research on the cognitive approach has been tested in all formats (lab, field, natural), helping to provide a scientific basis (similar to behaviorism) Such as social constructivism as the basis for teaching with technology Has been reinforced through emerging learning styles and research into how learning takes place Encourages the social process & interaction of learning through culture and language The cognitive approach has useful applications to education, e.g. schools now try to develop mental processing and encourage children to reflect of their own mental processing to enable the development of 'metacognition'. Sample Issue/Debate: Evaluation of Theory (Cognitive Education) Weaknesses of Cognitive Theory in Education To fully implement suggestions, it may require more class time, planning, and resources than what is available It may not show immediate results of learning taking place It doesn’t account for rewards & punishments that may encourage students Behaviorists critique the theory and assert that it cannot be measured objectively because it focuses on unobservable thought processes May not be feasible to implement in many classes (due to class size, testing distractions, allotted time, etc.) Overstresses the self-motivation of students The approach is reductionist as it focuses largely on the cognitive aspects of development, and ignores the impact that biological factors may have on development
