Download the role of selected animals in pollination and dispersal of

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Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
THE ROLE OF SELECTED ANIMALS IN POLLINATION AND
DISPERSAL OF TREES IN THE FOREST: IMPLICATIONS
FOR CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
S. S. Lee, Norsham Suhaina Yaakob, K. S. Boon & L. S. L. Chua
Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 52109 Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Received January 2001_______________________________________________
LEE, S. S., NORSHAM SUHAINA, Y., BOON, K. S. & CHUA, L. S. L. 2002. The
role of selected animals in pollination and dispersal of trees in the forest: implications
for conservation and management. The current state of knowledge of the role of some
plant-animal interactions in forest regeneration and conservation in Peninsular
Malaysia is discussed. In particular, we focused on selected insect pollinators and
animals which act as seed dispersers, for example, bats, primates, squirrels and birds.
Tree species, including timber trees and endemic tree species utilised by bats,
primates, squirrels, birds and selected insect pollinators are listed by their scientific
as well as local names. The forest types where such species can be found are also
identified. Some of the shortcomings of the currently available data are highlighted
and means to overcome the situation are suggested.
Keywords: Plant-animal interactions - pollinators - seed dispersers - conservation -
forest regeneration
LEE, S. S., NORSHAM SUHAINA, Y., BOON, K. S. & CHUA, L. S. L. 2002.
Peranan sesetengah haiwan dalam pendebungaan dan penyebaran pokok di hutan:
implikasiuntukpemuliharaandanpengurusan. Artikel ini membincangkan maklumat
terkini mengenai peranan beberapa interaksi tumbuhan-haiwan terhadap regenerasi
dan pemuliharaan hutan di Semenanjung Malaysia. Khususnya, kami menumpukan
perhatian kepada beberapa serangga pendebungaan dan haiwan yang berperanan
sebagai agen penyebaran biji benih, contohnya, kelawar, primal, tupai dan burung.
Spesies pokok, termasuk pokok kayu balak dan jenis endemik yang digunakan oleh
kelawar, primal, tupai dan burung disenaraikan mengikul nama saintifik serta nama
tempalan. Jeni&jenis hutan yang terdapat pokok-pokok lersebul juga dikenal pasti.
Beberapa kekurangan dari segi data semasa dilekankan dan cara-cara unluk
mengatasinya dicadangkan.
Introduction
Plants have evolved a variety of mechanisms to ensure their successful pollination,
dispersal and colonisation of suitable habitats. Some plants depend on wind while
others depend on insects and animals for seed dispersal. An animal species may be
the pollinator or dispersal agent of a specific plant species only or it may pollinate
and disperse many different plant species. Plants, on the other hand, not only
provide sources of food for insects and animals but also function as nesting and
roosting sites. Less obvious, but more importantly, plants and trees provide organic
matter and channel energy into the ecosystem through photosynthesis while
animals play a very important role in decomposition and distribution of organic
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
235
matter. However, the myriad and complex plant-animal relationships are not the
main topic of this paper and are best elaborated elsewhere. Suffice to say that
these relationships are even more complex in the tropical rain forests where the
diversity of flora and fauna is very high. It is estimated that there are about 15 000
species of flowering plants in Malaysia.
Pollinating and seed dispersal agents are called "mobile link" species (Gilbert
1980, Whitmore 1990) and they perform highly critical functions in the forest as
they bridge otherwise unconnected components of the forest ecosystem (Whitmore
1990). In contrast to mobile link species, "keystone species" are plants that provide
critical food resources for animals during annual periods of food scarcity which, if
prolonged, may cause the extinction of those species which depend on these
resources (Leighton & Leighton 1983, Terborgh 1986, Whitmore 1990). Logging
changes the forest structure, thereby altering the availability of food and other
resources for the animals. Reduced food resources may impact animal abundance
and foraging behaviour, which in turn could have an effect on forest regeneration.
Reduced populations or the disappearance of such frugivore species may result in
the disappearance of plants that depend on these animals for seed dispersal.
This paper focuses on the currentstate of knowledge of selected insect pollinators
and animals that act as seed dispersers and their implications for forest conservation
and regeneration. The paper also highlights some of the shortcomings of currently
available data and suggests means to overcome the situation.
Insect pollinators of trees in the forest
Insects are considered the most diverse group of living organisms in the world and
an estimated 150 000 species are known from Malaysia (Anonymous 1997a). Insects
play a variety of roles in the forest, ranging from pests of plants to agents of
biological control. They also play a very important role as pollinators of many forest
tree species. The bees, in particular the trigonids, and aphids are among the major
insect groups responsible for the pollination of many plants in Malaysian forests; 65
species of timber trees and 19 species of non-timber trees have been reported to be
pollinated by bees (Appendix 1). Thrips form another important group of insect
pollinators (Appanah & Chan 1982, Momose et al 1997). They are known to
pollinate 23 species of timber trees and 13 species of non-timber trees in Malaysian
rain forests (Appendix 1). Beetles are the third most important group of insect
pollinators, they are reported to pollinate 35 species of timber trees and 3 species
of non-timber trees in Malaysia (Appendix 1). Butterflies and moths (lepidopterans),
insects in the fly order (dipterans), grasshopper order (orthopterans), cockroaches
(blattodeans) and true bugs (hemipterans) are also pollinators of some forest
trees. In view of the high plant diversity and the limited number of studies that have
been carried out in Malaysian forests, the figures reported here represent only
a fraction of the insect pollinators to be found in our forests.
Some insects are host specific, pollinating only one species of plant, e.g. the
•gaonid wasps which pollinate figs, but others, like the bees, are generalists. Bees
are known to be important pollinators of a number of timber trees, including
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DryobaUmops spp., Neobalanocarpus heimii, Vatica spp., Shorea section Ovaks (Appanah
1987),Sindoravelutina(Appanah 1985) andKoompassiaspp. (Sakai^at 1997a).In
a study of 43 timber tree species at Lambir, Sarawak, about 19 species were reported
to be pollinated by bees (Sakai et al 1997a). One species of bee can pollinate many
species of plants and sometimes one plant species can be pollinated by many
species of bees, e.g. Dryobalanops aromatica (kapur) is known to be pollinated by 10
different species of bees (Sakai et al. 1997a). However, such detailed information is
only available for a limited number of tree species. Information on the foraging
patterns and feeding behaviour of the insects remains fragmentary.
Bats and birds as pollinators of trees in the forest
Some species of bats are known to be the main pollinators for species of economically
important forest trees. Pteropodid bats, Eonycteris spelaeaand Macroglossus minimus,
are known as the main pollinators ofDurio spp. which are important both for fruit
as well as for timber (Start & Marshall 1976, Soepadmo & Eow 1976, Gould 1977,
1978, Marshall 1983). Two other species of pteropodids, namely, Pteropus vampyrus
and Cynopterussp., have also been reported to feed on flowers of Duriospp. (Gould
1977, Fujita & Tuttle 1991) but they are probably not important as pollinators as
their visits are irregular and destructive. Pollen from 32 plant species have been
found in the droppings of the three nectarivorous bats, E. spelaea, M. mMimus and
M. sobrinus (Start 1974, Start & Marshall 1976, Soepadmo & Eow 1976). These
include pollen from the timber tree species Bombax valetonii, D. zibethinus, Parkia
spp. including P. speciosa (petai), Artocarpus spp., Palaquium spp. (nyatoh) and
Sonneratiaspp., indicating that these bats are important pollinators for these tree
species.
Among the birds, sunbirds and spider hunters (Nectariniidae) as well as white
eyes/spectacle birds (Zosteropidae) are known as pollinators. These birds are
small, active, arboreal birds that feed on nectar and small insects, as well as spiders.
Wells (1988) recorded 10 species of sunbirds from the lowland forest of Peninsular
Malaysia and observed that all spider hunters and Aethopyga as well as Nectarinia
sunbirds of the lowland forest also range deeply into montane forests. However,
although the characteristics of bird-pollinated flowers are well known (e.g. Meeuse
1961, Faegri & van der Pijl 1966), comprehensive data on the species of trees
pollinated by birds is not available. Birds are known to pollinate at least 34 species
of timber trees and 119 species of non-timber trees, including many species of
climbers and palms (Appendix 1).
Frugivorous mammals and birds
A frugivore is defined as an animal whose diet is composed of 50% fleshy fruits
(Terborgh 1986) and in this paper we use the term frugivore to loosely refer to
those animals that are both obligatory and opportunistic fruit feeders. We focus on
fruit eating bats, primates, squirrels and birds as these animals can be considered
as seed dispersal agents.
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
237
Fruit eating bats
Bats make up about one third of the total number of mammalian fauna in
Peninsular Malaysia and are divided into two suborders, the Megachiroptera and
Microchiroptera. The former mainly feed on fruits with a few species feeding on
nectar and pollen while the latter is insectivorous and/or carnivorous. In Malaysia,
the role of bats as seed dispersal agents is still poorly understood as few studies
have been conducted. One species that has been the subject of several studies is
Cynopterus brachyotis which feeds on fruits. This bat is considered a potential seed
dispersal agent because it carries fruits to feeding roosts located 50-70 m away from
the fruiting tree (Funakoshi & Zubaid 1997). Fruit remnants, intact seeds, chewed
leaves and flowers have been found underneath such roosts (Phua & Corlett 1989,
Tan et al 1998). The role of bats as pollinators is, however, well known. From direct
observations and fecal samples, bats are known to pollinate many cultivated and
forest trees, including timber species (Appendix 1).
Based on past studies, at least 80 plant species from 27 families of trees are
known as sources of food (fruits, flowers, nectar) to bats (Appendix 1). Of these,
36 species from 17 families are timber trees and two, Madhuca selangorica and
Payena maingayi (nyatoh durian),are endemic species. Both these species are
from the family Sapotaceae and can be found in lowland forests. The latter can also
be found in hill forests and is also a timber tree species. Since data on the food
habits of bats in primary forests are scarce, we presently only know of a small
number of economically important plant species that may be pollinated or
dispersed by certain species of bats.
Primates
In Peninsular Malaysia, the primate fauna comprises one prosimian (Nycticebus
coucang), three gibbons (Hylobates agilis, H. lor and H. syndactylus), three macaques
(Macaco arctoides, M. fascicularis and M. nemestrina) and three langurs (Presbytis
cristata, P. melalophos and P. obscura). Very little is known of the small, solitary and
nocturnal slow loris (N. coucang) and it is not surprising that its role in seed dispersal
has yet to be determined. Of the three gibbon species, the siamang (H. syndactylus)
mainly feeds on leaves while the other two species feed on fruits. Figs were found
to be an important source of food for all three species of gibbons (Chivers 1974,
Gittins & Raemakers 1980). Macaques are reported to be omnivorous, feeding on
fruits, leaves and insects (Harrison 1961, Lim 1968, Medway 1983). Of the three
langurs, P. cristata is mainly folivorous (Kool cited in Laidlaw 1994). Half of the
diet of P. obscura is made up of leaves while half of the diet of P. melalophos is made
up of fruits and seeds (Curtin 1980).
Primates obtain food from a total of 410 species of plants, of which 222 are
timber species. Plant families which have a high number of species utilised by
primates for food are Moraceae (33 species), Annonaceae (32 species),
^uphorbiaceae (29 species), Leguminosae (22 species), Meliaceae (19 species),
Guttiferae (16 species), Anacardiaceae (15 species), Burseraceae and Ebenaceae
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Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
(14 species each), and Sapindaceae (13 species). Of the plants consumed by
primates, 23 are endemic species (Appendix 1). However, this data is probably
still far from complete.
Figs have been proposed as important keystone species for primates based on
their characteristics and prominence in the diet of primates, i.e. large fruit crop
and continuous availability due to the large number of species present (Raemakers
et al 1980). Studies in the lowland forest at Kuala Lompat, Pahang, Peninsular
Malaysia, showed that there are plants other than figs that contribute to the diet
of primates during seasons of low food availability and that some of these species
are available almost all year round (Curtin 1980, Bennet 1983). It would appear
that figs are not the keystone species for most primates with the exception perhaps
of the siamang (H. syndactylus) where our observations show that figs makeup
the largest portion of their diet compared with other plant species. Yasuda (1998)
reported that figs were not the keystone species for small mammals at Pasoh Forest
Reserve, Negeri Sembilan, Peninsular Malaysia as their diversity and density were
much lower than at Kuala Lompat. Similarly, Gautier-Horn and Michaloud (1989)
found that figs were not the keystone species for mammals in Gabon due to their
low densities, unpredictable fruiting patterns and low crown production.
There is presently very little information on the role of primates in seed
dispersal. Among them, gibbons are the most likely seed dispersal agents because
of their feeding characteristics. They only eat the ripe pulp of fruits, swallowing
seeds of most species and excreting them whole, and often at great distances
from the source trees. They also often revisit food sources, making them reliable
seed transporters. Another potential seed dispersal agent is the long-tailed
macaque (M. fascicularis) which often drop and spit out larger seeds, and carry
more fruit away from the fruiting tree (Corlett & Lucas 1990). In contrast, most of
the other primates are highly opportunistic and tend to destroy seeds during
feeding (Gittins & Raemakers 1980).
Squirrels
The importance of squirrels as seed dispersal agents is unclear as there is data
showing both their roles as seed predators as well as seed dispersal agents. Some
species of squirrels are also known to consume unripe fruits which would make
them unlikely as effective dispersal agents. The dentition of squirrels also allow
them to gnaw through hard tissue thereby destroying the fruit embryo (MacKinnon
1978). On the other hand, some species of squirrels are known to drop seeds and/
or consume the seeds far away from the fruiting tree and dropping some during
transport. Some squirrels also bury seeds in the ground and unrecovered seeds
could germinate and contribute to regeneration far away from the parent tree.
More in-depth studies are needed to elucidate the role of squirrels in seed dispersal.
A total of 235 species of trees from 49 families are known to provide sources of
food for squirrels. Of these 160 are timber species and 14 are endemic species
(Appendix 1). Important families are the Euphorbiaceae (21 species), Leguminosae
and Annonaceae (ISspecies each), Meliaceae and Anacardiaceae (16 species each)
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
239
and Burseraceae and Myristicaceae (10 species each). Squirrels generally eat the
fruits and seeds of trees but leaves, bark and flowers are also sometimes consumed
by some species.
Birds
Frugivorous birds are considered important mobile links by functioning as
pollinators and seed dispersal agents. In Peninsular Malaysia, there are 19 species
of obligate fruit eating birds, 13 of which are found in the lowlands and six in
montane forests (Wells 1988). Of these 19 species, 10 species of pigeons and three
species of parrots feed solely on fruits, seeds and flowers. Birds in the following
families maybe considered partially orwhollyfrugivorous: Bucerotidae (hornbills),
Campephagidae (minivets), Capitonidae (barbets), Chloropseidae (leafbirds),
Columbidae (pigeons), Corvidae (magpies and crows), Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers),
Irenidae (Asian fairy bluebird), Oriolidae (orioles), Phasianidae (pheasants),
Psittacidae (parrots), Pycnonotidae (bulbuls), Sturnidae (hillmyna) andTimaliidae
(babbler).
Birds are highly dependent on trees not only for food but also for nesting and
perching and some birds feed on insects found on the trees. In a study conducted
in a hill dipterocarp forest at Sungai Tekam Forest Reserve, Pahang, Peninsular
Malaysia, Johns (1983) found that 22 species of birds were intolerant of forest
disturbance. These birds are found in unlogged forest but not in older logged
forests. Another 20 species only occurred in logged forests and these were
categorised as colonising species. Based on his study of fig-eating birds in a lowland
forest at Kuala Lompat, Lambert (1989) proposed figs as keystone resources for
birds because of their abundance, aseasonal fruiting, enormous crop size, distinctive
intra-crown synchrony of fruit ripening, short intervals between fruiting by
individual trees, and ease of harvesting by different groups of frugivores. Another
important factor is that Ficus is the only known plant taxon to which frugivorous
birds in Southeast Asia have specialised (Lambert & Marshall 1991).
In comparison with the figs, detailed information on other tree species is
lacking. Many trees on which birds depend for food have only been identified to
genus level making it difficult tojudge the importance of a particular tree family in
providing sources of food for the birds. Presently about 153 species of trees from
54 families are known to provide sources of food to various frugivorous birds
(Appendix 1), with the Moraceae being the most important family by far. Other tree
families which are important as food sources for birds are the Palmae, Burseraceae
and Sapindaceae. From the above discussion it is clear that our understanding of
pollination and seed dispersal of tropical rain forest trees is very limited.
Discussion
It has been increasingly recognised that within a tropical rain forest, an
incredible number of linkages exist between plants and animals, from the food
chain to dependence on pollination, dispersal, provision of roosts and nest sites,
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Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
chemical defense and other functions. It is feared that if some of these links or
interconnections are severed, whole ecosystems may collapse. For example, certain
species of bats are the pollinators and dispersal agents for a large number of trees
in the forest. If these bats become locally extirpated or severely decimated in
numbers as a result of forest harvesting, a whole host of bat-dependent plants
could become reproductively impotent. Such an event would threaten the successful
regeneration of that group of plants. In addition, if that threatened plant group is
economically useful, the fiscal value of the forest would also be considerably
reduced. Therefore, for sustainable forest management, tree species that play
important roles in animal-plant inter-relationships and that provide important
sources of food or habitats for the mobile links, need to be recognised and retained
or saved from damage.
An effort to retain some important food source trees during forest operations
has been made by the Forestry Department, Peninsular Malaysia. The department's
ManualKerjaLuarSistemPengurusanMemilih (Anonymous 1997b) is a commendable
operations manual containing guidelines, rules and procedures aimed at guiding
the staff of the Forestry Department in performing their duties and responsibilities
in an organised, uniform and effective manner. Among many operational guidelines,
this manual contains a list (on page 261) of forest trees which are sources of food
for animals. These trees have been reported elsewhere as sources of food for
primates and other animals and are not permitted to be girdled except in
circumstances where they are likely to have an important impact on the regeneration
of the residual stand. We believe that with some modification and improvement,
this list can be a very important and useful tool for forest conservation and
management purposes. Firstly, the references from which the list were derived
should be provided so that the accuracy of the data can be verified. The present list
is rather general as the groups of primates, squirrels and birds referred to are not
stated. It is known that not all primates, squirrels and birds act as dispersal agents;
manyjust consume and destroy fruits and seeds. Many other important animal food
source trees need to be included in the list. In addition it is important to include
trees which are vital to specific groups of pollinators whose presence and activity
ensure the success of the regeneration of our desired crop trees as well as the
continued functioning of the forest ecosystem.
Below we list some suggestions for improvement and usage of the aforementioned
list. An example of an improved list is shown in Appendix 1. However, we would like
to stress that our list is still far from complete or perfect and that review and
modifications would be necessary as more comprehensive data become available.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Local names of trees and forest types where the trees are found should be
included.
The list can be made more specific to include only those species which are
known to be pollinated and dispersed by the identified mobile link species.
(The list shown here is rather extensive and may need to be trimmed down).
Timber and endemic trees as well as non-timber trees should be noted/
highlighted.
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
241
As the list is to be used in Peninsular Malaysia, Bornean species need not be
included.
Sources of references for the list of tree species and their mobile links should
be cited for ease of reference and verification of data.
The inclusion of phenological data on flowering and fruiting seasons should
be considered, perhaps as an additional appendix, as such information is
important to indicate which sources of food are available when.
Data on the range of the mobile link species need to be collected as this is
linked to the issue of forest fragmentation. By so doing, the list can be made
(8)
more concise with the inclusion of only a minimum set of important or
critical food source trees.
Training must be provided to field staff so that they are able to recognise
these target trees. However, this is for the future. The more immediate need
is to obtain detailed information on the mobile link species and keystone
species in our forests so that a minimum set of species can be identified to
ensure the continued regeneration and sustainable management of our
forests.
Conclusions
Our understanding of the pollination and seed dispersal of many tropical rain
forest trees is still very limited. Although we know that the Leguminosae, Moraceae,
Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Meliaceae are among the more important plant
families that provide food for bats, primates, squirrels and birds, such data is
insufficient to elucidate the effectiveness of these animals as efficient pollinators
and/or seed dispersal agents. Similarly, although we know that some plants are
highly dependent on specific pollinators, such data need to be interpreted carefully
in the light of the few studies that have been carried out.
Acknowledgements
This review was undertaken as part of the Sustainable Forest Management Project
03 01 03 312 funded by the Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia. We would like
to express our sincere thanks and gratitude to E. Soepadmo, Lim Boo Liat and
Terry Ong for their guidance and keen interest. We also wish to thank S. Appanah
and the Director General of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia for their support
and encouragement.
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MEEUSE, B. J. D. 1961. The Story of Pollination. The Ronald Press Company, New York. 243 pp.
MOMOSE, K., NAGAMITSU, T. & INDUE, T. 1996. The reproductive ecology of an emergent dipterocarp in
lowland rain forest in Sarawak. Plant Species Biology 11: 189-198.
MOMOSE, K., NAGAMITSU, T. & INDUE, T. 1997. Thrips cross-pollination ofPopowiapisocarpa (Annonaceae)
in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Sarawak. Pp. 197-201 in Inoue, T. & Hamid, A. A. (Eds.)
General Flowering of Tropical Rain Forest in Sarawak. Canopy Biology Program in Sarawak: Series
II. Kyoto.
NAGAMITSU, T., MOMOSE, K., INOUE, T. & ROUBIK, D. W. 1997. Floral resource partitioning in a stingless
bee guild in an Asian tropical rain forest. Pp. 202-213 in Inoue, T. & Hamid, A. A. (Eds.)
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Series II. Kyoto.
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PHUA, P. B. & CORLETT, R. T. 1989. Seed dispersal by the lesser short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus
brachyotis, Pteropodidae, Megachiroptera). Malayan Nature Journal 42: 251-256.
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Malayan Forest Primates. Plenum Press, New York.
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Hamid, A. A. (Eds.) General Flowering of Tropical Rain Forest in Sarawak. Canopy Biology Program
in Sarawak: Series II. Kyoto.
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Macroglossinae) in Malaysia. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen. 259 pp.
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141-150 in BurleyJ. L. & Styles, B. T. (Eds.) Tropical Trees: Variation, Breedingand Conservation.
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244
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WHITMORE, T. C. 1990. An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forest. Oxford University Press, New York. 226
pp.
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special reference to habitat preference, frugivory and population dynamics. Ph.D. thesis,
University of Tokyo, Japan. 90 pp.
Appendix 1
Family
Species
Alangiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Annonaceae
Tree species utilised by bats, primates, squirrels, birds and selected insect pollinators
for food (timber (T) and endemic (E) tree species)
Local name
Forest type
Alangium ebenaceum (T)
Alangium ridleyi (T&E)
Mentulang daun bujur
Mentulang daun lebar
Bouea inaquifolia
Bouea macrophylla (T)
Bouea oppositifolia (T)
Buchanania arborescens (T)
Buchanania sessifolia (T)
Campnosperma auriculatum (T)
Dracontomelon dao (T)
Gluta elegans (T)
Mangifera gracilipes (E)
Mangifera griffithii (T)
Mangifera indica (T)
Mangifen laurina (T)
Mangifera macropkytta (T)
Mangifera magnifica (T&E)
Mangifera quadrifida (T)
Mangifera spp.
Melanorrhoea fulvinervis (T)
Melanorrhoea inappendiculata
Melanorrhoea malayana (T)
Pentaspadon velutinus (T)
Semecarpus sp.
Alphonsea elliptica (T)
Annona squamosa
Cananga odorata (T)
Cyathocalyx carinatus
Cyathocalyx pruniferus (T&E)
Cyathocalyx scortechinii (E)
Cyathocalyx sp.
Deswxwsp. (liana)
Fissistigma sp.
Mezutia parviflora (T)
Monocarpia marginalis (T)
Afeo-UDoria/ortido
Synonym
D. mangiferum
M. microphylla
M. longipes
Primates
Squirrels
LDF
LDF
+
+
Kundang
Kundang hutan
Kundang rumenia
Otak udang daun tumpul
Otak udang daun tajam
Terentang daun besar
Sengkuang
Rengas
Macang hutan daun halus
Rawa
LF
LDF, HDF
LDF, HDF
CF, RV
LDF, HDF
LDF, MF
LDF, RV
LDF
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Mangga
Cultivated
Macang api
Macang temuor
Macang
Macang
LDF
LDF, HDF
LF
Macang
Rengas
Rengas
Pelong beludu
Bats
Birds
Bees
Thrips
Beetles
+
+
LDF
+
+
+
C/5
+
+
+
+
+
$
I—»
5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
OS
+
+
LF
•f
+
LDF, HDF
NS
o
o
NO
+
Mempisang, chaget
Buah nona
Kenanga
Antoi daun kecil
Antoi
Antoi
Antoi
LDF
Cultivated
LDFfm
LF
LDF, HDF
LF
Akarlarak
M. leptopoda
Mempisang
Mempisang
LDF
LDF
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(continued)
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
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Appendix 1 (continued)
Family
Species
Lauraceae
Actinodaphne sp.
Alseodaphne sp.
Synonym
Local name
Forest type
Bats
Primates
+
Berambong
Squirrels
+
Birds
Bees
Thrips
Beedes
+
+
•S
|
^3"
s£.
daun satu
Beilschmiedia spp.
Cinnamomum men (T)
Cinnamomum sp. (T)
Cryptocarya sp.
Dehaasia eUiptica (T)
Dehaasia incrassata (T)
Dehaasia polyneura (T)
Zfeftoorio spp.
Endtandra sp.
Z-itwo spp. (T)
Machilus sp.
Nothaphoebe umbelliflora (T)
Lecythidaceae
Leguminosae
Medang
Medang teja
Gamak
Medang
Medang
Z). efli/rtico
AreAtoVndnm clypearia
Archidendron contortum
Archidendron jiringa
Bauhinia purpurea
CaUerya atmpurpurea (T)
Cassiafistula
Cassia javanica ssp. nodosa (T)
Casiia spectabilis
Cynometra malaccensis (T)
ZJemjsp. (liana)
Dialium indum var. mdum (T)
LF, HF
LDFrv
LDF
Medang
Medang
Medang
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Saga
Kerdas
LDFfm
LF, cultivated
LFb
Gonderik buah merah
LF
+
+
Gonderik buah hitam
LF
+
+
Jiring
LF, cultivated
Tulang daing
Cultivated
Open areas
+
Milletia
atmpurpurea
Cultivated
+
C. nodosa
Bebusok
+
C. inaeauifolia
Kekatong
D. laurinum.
Keranji paya
LDF
"NO
^
+
+
LF, HF, RV
LDF
LDF
Cultivated
LDF, HDF
Co
h—'
Putat
Putat
PitheceUobium
bulbalinum
PitheceUobium
clypearia
PitheceUobium
contortum
PitheceUobium
jiringa
K
I
LDF to MF
A. pennata
§]
+
+
+
Medang
fiam'ngtanta spp.
Planchonia valida (T)
Acacia ameinna (liana)
Adenanthera bicolor
Archidendron bubalinum (T)
+
+
LDF, HDF
|
w
f
NO
O)
OS
+
+
NS
O
o
+
-IS
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
D. patens
Dialium kuntsleri (T) (Borneo)
+
to
(continued)
254
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
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255
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Appendix 1 (continued)
Family
Species
Dysoxylum cauliflorum (Borneo) (T)
Dysoxylum spp.
Lansium domaticum (T)
Metiasp.
Keinwardtiodendron humile
Sandoricum koetjapi (T)
Sandaricum sp.
Walsura pinnata (T)
Menispermaceae
Fibraureasp. (liana)
Moraceae
Antiaris toxicaria (T)
Artocarpus fulvicortex (T)
Artocarpus integer var. sihestris
Artocarpus lanceifolius (T)
Artocarpus loom (T)
Artocarpus maingayi (T)
Artocarpus rigidus (T)
Artocarpus scortechinii (T)
Artocarpus spp.
Synonym
Local name
Forest type
Mersindok
Langsat
Mostly LF
LDF, cultivated
Primates
Squirrels
Birds
+
+
+
+
+
Bees
Thrips
Beetles
+
+
+
Sentul
W. neuroides
Mersindok
LDF, HDF
LDF, HDF
LF
LDF, HDF
+
+
+
+
+
LDF
LDF
LDF to MF
LDF, HDF
LDF
LDF
LDF, HDF
LDF
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ipoh
Keledang tampang gajah
Cempedak
Keledang keledang
Miku
Pudu
Keledang tampang
Terap hitam
+
+
+
fieuj annulata (T)
Ftcus aurantiacea
Ficus benjamina
Ficus binnendykii
Ficus bracteata (T)
Ficus callophyUa
Ficus caulocarpa
Kuap
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ficus consociata
Ficus CFasstramea
Ficus cucurbitma
Ficus delosyce
FKUS drupacea
Ficus dubia
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ficus fstulosa (T)
Ficus heteropkura
Ficus kerkhovenii
Ficus obscura\ar. bomeensis (T)
Ficus parietalis
Bats
Ara
Ara
Ara
F. obscura
Ara
LDF
LDF
LDF, cultivated
LDF
LDF
+
Wild and
cultivated
LF, RV, seashores
LF, villages
BF
LDF
LDF, HDF
LDF
SF, wayside
LDFtoMF
LDF to MF
LDF
LDF
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
f
(continued)
Appendix 1 (continued)
Family
Species
Synonym
Ficus pdlucidopunctata
Ficus pisocarpa
Ficus religiosa
Ficus roxburghii
Ficus ruginervia
Ficus sagittata
Ficus stricta
Ficus stupenda
Ficus subcordata var. malayana
Ficus subulata
Ficus sumatrana
Ficus sundaica (T)
Ficus sundaica var. sundaica
Ficus trichocarpa
Ficus vasculosa (T)
Ficus virms (T)
Ficus vhmsvai. gfobeUa
Paratocarpus bracteatus
F. subcordata
Local name
Forest type
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
LDF
LDFrv
Cultivated
+
Cultivated
+
Ara
F. indica
F.glabbeua
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Ara
Berteh
Myricaceae
Myricasp.
Myristicaceae
Gymnacranthera sp.
HorsfieUia irya (T)
HorsfieUia pofyspherula (T)
Squirrels
LDF
LDF
LDF
HDF to MF
HDF
LDF, HDF
LDF
LDF
LDF
LDF, HDF
LDF
LDF
LDF, HDF
LDF, HDF
M. malaccensis
M. truncata
Pisang
Pisang
Pisang
LDF to LMF
MF
Cultivated
Telur cicak
CF
Birds
Bees
Thrips
Beetles
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Mostly LF
Streblussp.
Musa acuminata ssp. malaccensis
Musa acuminata ssp. microcarpa
Musasp.
Primates
+
Tebakah
Sloetia elongata (T)
Musaceae
Bats
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Pianggu, penggu
LDF, lowlying RV
HorsfieUia sucosa (T&E)
HorsfieUia supabam
HorsfieUia spp.
Penarahan
Penarahan
Penarahan
Penarahan
Knema ctnerfa
Basong paya
Knema fiafitracea (T)
Penarahan
Knema hookcriana (T)
Knema lamina (T)
Knema spp.
Myristica gigantea (T)
Penarahan
Basong bulu
LF
LDF, HDF
LDF
Penarahan
Penarahan arang bukit
LDF
LDF
+
+
+
+
+
+
+•
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(continued)
B?
Journal of Tropical Fonst Science 14(2): 234-263 (2002)
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Appendix 1 (continued)
Family
Species
O)
NO
Synonym
Sonneratia caseolaris (T)
Sonneratia auata (T)
Sterculiaceae
ftrmiana malayana
Pterocymbium linclorium (T)
P. javanicum
Pterospermumjavanicum(T)
Pteiygota alata(T)
Scaphium bomeensis (T)
Scaphium linearicarpum (T)
Scaphium langipetiolatum (T) (Borneo)
Scaphium macropodum^T)
Sterculia foetida (T)
Sterculia panrifolia (T&E)
Sterculia stipulata
Local name
Forest type
Bats
Berembang
Gedabu
Mangroves
Mangroves
+
+•
Bayur
Kasah
+
+
+
(Borneo)
Kembang semangkok bulat
LDF, HDF
+
LDF, HDF
CF
HDF
+
+
+
Kelumpang jari
Kelumpang
Beetles
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Taccaceae
Taccasp. (herb)
Theaceae
Admandra ilamponga (T)
Adtnonttra sp.
Tiup-tiup
Aauilaria malaccenas (T)
Gmystyhts cmfusus (T)
Ramin pinang muda
Tr^gimia5<ruffl hypoteucum (T)
Thrips
+
Kelumpang
Styrax benzoin (T)
Trigonaceae
Bees
+
Kembang semangkokjantong
Styracaceae
Microcosantidesmifolia(1)
Microaa UattaefoKa (T)
M icrocos crassifolia
Microaa fUmcarpa (T)
Microau laurifolia (T&E)
Microaa tomentosa (T)
Microcossp. (5 spp)
Pmtaccjloribvnda
Pentace triptrra (T)
Schoutenia comeri (E)
Birds
+
Alluvial
LDF, HDF
LDFrv
Symptoms sp.
TUiaceae
Squirrels
RV, open forests
Melembu
Symplocaceae
Thymelaeaceae
Primates
Kemenyan
+
*
+
§
^
+
Kelat paya
+
+
Karas
+
LF
+
Chenderai
LF
+
+
+
G.fitrocarpa
G. laurifolia
G. tomentosa
Chenderai, damak bulu
Chenderai
Chenderai tanjung
LF
LDF, HDF
LDF, HDF fm
+
+
+
+
+
4-
4+
+
+
Marajali
S.
§•
g
+
G. blattaefolia
Ba'ang
Melunak pusatbeludu
LDFrv
a
^g.
1
^
+
+
HDF
LDF
+
e*
^
'Jo
'7^'
to
V?
f
+
+
JS
&>
+
bo
+
1
(continued)
Appendix 1 (continued)
Family
Species
Ulmaceae
Celtis rigescens (T)
Celtissp.
Gmmnieria hirta (T)
Gmmnieria neruosa (T)
Gmmnieria parvifolia (T)
Gmmnieria subaequalis (T)
Gmmnteria sp.
Trema oruntalis
Tremasp.
Urticaceae
Verbenaceae
Synonym
Local name
Forest type
Semantit
LDF, HDF
Bats
Squirrels
+
+
Birds
Bees
Thrips
Beetles
+
Hampas tebu
Hampas tebu
Hampas tebu LDF, HDF
+
Hampas tebu LDF, HDF
+
+
Menarong
LFb
+
+
+
Laporteasp.
Poikttospermum sp.(epiphyte)
VUIebruntasp.
CaUicarpa maingayi
Lantana cammara
Teijsmanniodendnm spp.
Vitexpinnata (T)
Vitec trifoliata
Vitexspp.
Primates
+
+
+
+
+
Cultivated
V. pubescens
Leban
SF, wayside
Mosdy LF
+
+
+
+
+
Violaceae
Knoreasp.
+
Vitaceae
Vitissp. (liana)
+
+
+
+
rsy
t
I
+
LDF = Lowland dipterocarp forest; LDFs = Swampy lowland dipterocarp forest; LDFfm = Forest margin; LFb = Belukar
HDF = Hill dipterocarp forest
PSF = Peat swamp forest
LMF = Lower montane forest
RV = Riverbanks
MF = Montane forest
SF = Secondary forest
CHF = Coastal hill forest
CF = Coastal forest
BF = Beach forest
p, s = primary, secondary
Sources: Mcdure (1966), Madge (1969), Chivers (1974, 1980), Start and Marshall (1976), Curtin and Chivers (1978), MacKinnon (1978), Payne (1979), Appanah (1981, 1987),
Appanah and Chan (1982), Bennet (1983), Johns (1983), Appanah « aL (1986), Caldecott (1986), Kiew and Davison (1989), Lambert (1989), Momose et aL (1996, 1997), Nagamitsu et aL (1997),
Sakai etaL (1997a, b), Tan etal (1998).
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