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Running head: OPERANT CONDITIONING AND GAGNE’S CONDITIONS
Operant Conditioning and Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
Ryan P. Eller
California State University – Monterey Bay
IST 520 Learning Theory
Professor Lockwood
April 16, 2013
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Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 3
Section One: Key Concepts and Principles .................................................................................... 3
Who are the representative theorists (individuals known to be associated with this theory)? ....... 3
From this theoretical perspective, what are the key factors that influence learning? ................... 4
What is the role of the teacher/instructor in the learning process? ............................................... 5
What are the types of learning best explained by this position?..................................................... 7
What are some basic strategies used to exemplify this theory? ...................................................... 7
What are this theory's major strengths/weaknesses?...................................................................... 9
What are some academic references (articles/websites) pertaining to this theoretical
perspective? .................................................................................................................................. 10
Section Two: Implications on Instruction ..................................................................................... 10
Section Three - Real World Examples.......................................................................................... 11
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 14
References ..................................................................................................................................... 15
OPERANT CONDITIONING AND GAGNE’S CONDITIONS
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Introduction
In my time as a Student Affairs educator at CSU Monterey Bay, I have been involved in
many Residential Life training sessions, both here on campus and at regional conferences. As
such, I am going to compare two learning theories that are applicable to these training sessions:
Operant Conditioning founded by B.F. Skinner and the Conditions of Learning founded by
Robert Gagne. By incorporating learning theories into the training sessions I present, my fellow
employees can get more out of each session.
Section One: Key Concepts and Principles
Who are the representative theorists (individuals known to be associated with this theory)?
Operant Conditioning was founded by B.F. Skinner, John Watson and Edward
Thorndike. Thorndike’s research came first, yet B.F. Skinner was the first to give the theory a
name (Stadden and Cerutti, 2003). Thorndike performed experiments on animals to see how
they learned through either adverse or positive reactions to a stimulus (Thorndike, 1927). John
Watson was a major influence on B.F. Skinner’s ideals of operant learning, even though he was
famous for his classical conditioning experiments (Horowitz, 1992), especially his “Little
Albert” experiment (Gredler, 2008). These three are the main founding fathers of operant
conditioning, with B.F. Skinner building off of the work of Thorndike and Watson.
Gagne was the founder of his conditions of learning. Gagne developed his theories
because he felt “that the traditional principles of learning (e.g., contiguity, the law of effect) were
not helpful in improving training” (Gredler, 2008, p. 141). As such, Gagne developed varieties
of learning, phases of learning, and ideas about how instructional design should be structured
(Gredler, 2008). These developments lead to the creation of his Nine Events of Instruction,
which is still in use today.
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From this theoretical perspective, what are the key factors that influence learning?
For B.F. Skinner, learning involved a change in behavior, which was not proven by
simply performing a task (Gredler, 2008). Learning takes place when an action is routinely
repeated correctly. A simple example would be showing someone how to draw a circle. The
teacher would be the stimulus (Gredler, 2008) acting upon the student’s ability to elicit a similar
behavior. Many things go into this process of behavioral change.
Firstly, reinforcing a change in behavior is critically important. When providing
reinforcement (whether positive or negative) a teacher should make sure that the reinforcement is
“contingent on the execution of a particular behavior” (Gredler, 2008, p. 103). Using the same
example as above, reinforcement could be praise for drawing a circle correctly.
Negative reinforcement also plays a role in the learning process. Negative reinforcement
strengthens a particular behavior by removing “any stimulus that results in the increased
frequency of a response when it is withdrawn” (Culatta, 2013). Negative reinforcement routinely
involves a learner demonstrating an escape behavior, which is “the termination or removal of the
discriminative stimulus” (Gredler, 2008, p.108). For example, a student might struggle drawing
a circle with a colored pencil. The teacher could then remove other types of pencils, so that the
leaner would be forced to adapt to using colored pencils. This could lead the student to quit using
the colored pencil, make excuses as to why they could not use the pencil, or try to get out of
doing the activity at all (e.g. escape behavior).
Shaping is another key factor of the learning process. Shaping involves creating a step by
step process for creating a change in behavior (Gredler, 2008). For example, in teaching the
student to draw a circle, one would promote any behavior that helps the student to draw the circle
(e.g. drawing in a circular motion, erasing unnecessary lines, etc.). Shaping “is sensitive to the
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continuous nature of a complex act” (Gredler, 2008, p. 113) because it allows the teacher to
deliver information to students slowly (Calutta, 2013), while reinforcing behavior that supports
learning the new objective.
Gagne, and his conditions of learning, provided other ways of looking at how one
learns. Gagne believed that the environment, not one’s genetics, affected one’s ability to learn
(Gredler, 2008). He also believed that learning helps one to develop as a person, that learning
helps people to “generalize...a variety of situations” (Gredler, 2008, p. 143), and that “learning is
cumulative; the learning of complex skills builds on prior learning” (Gredler, 2008, p. 143).
Gagne broke up learning into five different categories. Verbal information is a category
of learning in which “words have meaning for the individual” (Gredler, 2008, p. 149). For
example, the student learning about a circle would understand phrases about how to draw a
circle, what a circle is, etc. Intellectual skills are another category. These skills involve using
the mind to perform tasks (Gredler, 2008). An example would be discriminating between shapes
on a test. The third category involves cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies involve the
“learner’s own thought processes” into their learning techniques (Gredler, 2008, p. 150). Motor
skills are another category. Motor skills are any activity that involves movement and the
perfection of that movement (Gredler, 2008). For example, teaching a runner how to pick up his
or her feet when sprinting. Attitudes are the last category. Attitudes affect learning by affecting
how the learner views how he or she learns and how he or she acts (Gredler, 2008).
What is the role of the teacher/instructor in the learning process?
Those teaching using operant conditioning have to be very aware of how their learners
behave and how they plan to help learners learn new behavior. Teachers need to be aware of
discriminative stimuli, types of reinforcement, and of classroom behavior (Gredler, 2008).
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A discriminative stimulus “serves as a cue for a particular behavior” (Gredler, 2008, p.
118). Discriminative stimuli provide the same result each time (Kirsch, et. al., 2004) and can
help the learner to perform a task routinely. For example, a teacher could have paint brushes set
up before students return from lunch. The students would then know that it was time to paint and
that they should perform the behavior upon returning. Using discriminative stimuli helps
learners to perform tasks as they are supposed to be done. In other words, these stimuli give
learners something that can help them to refresh their memory before performing a behavior.
In operant conditioning the teacher can use positive and negative reinforcement, as
mentioned above. Using appropriate praise (positive reinforcement) and negative reinforcement
benefits one’s students. For example, praising a student who has completed a new step in the
multiplication table will help that student to continue learning math. However, scolding a
student for getting an answer incorrect could lead to the student not participating in math class
anymore (e.g. exhibiting escape behavior).
Lastly, Gredler mentions “reinforcing behaviors incompatible with disruptive behavior”
(Gredler, 2008, p. 118) is important. As such, punishing students and chiding students is
unnecessary if the teacher promotes good behavior in the first place. By rewarding and
reinforcing positive behavior (listening skills, active engagement, etc.), the teacher can spend
more time teaching new behaviors and skills, instead of getting students to focus on prior
lessons.
Gagne provided nine steps for an instructor to use when designing a class or training
module. These steps include: “gaining attention, informing learners of the objective, stimulating
recall of prior learning, presenting the stimulus, providing learning guidance, eliciting
performance, providing feedback, assessing performance, and enhancing retention and transfer”
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(Calutta, 2013). As such, the teacher plays a huge role in the learning process. They are
responsible for getting their students focused on learning a new skill, help them to learn it, and
ultimately make sure that they can actually perform the task.
What are the types of learning best explained by this position?
According to Richard Calutta, the Deputy Director of the Office of Educational
Technology for the US Department of Education, operant conditioning is routinely used in
“clinical settings as well as teaching” (2013). For instance, operant conditioning can be used to
help those with chronic pain issues. By helping patients to learn behavior that can reduce their
pain, or by informing patients of behavior that is causing their patient pain, doctors can help rid
them of chronic pain (Sanders, 2002). Teaching was explored above. By promoting positive
behavior in the classroom, teachers can help students learn new behavior that can benefit them
throughout their educational and professional careers.
Gagne’s conditions of learning can be applied to any educational setting (Calutta,
2013). One can see how any of the five learning categories and nine steps of instruction can be
beneficial regardless of the field it’s applied in. For example, a teacher could focus on gaining
the attention of students who are learning a painting motor skill on the first day of art
class. Conversely, someone setting up a training environment focused around verbal information
could focus on helping attendees recall past usage of customer service jargon. Its applications
are quite endless.
What are some basic strategies used to exemplify this theory?
In Gagne’s conditions of learning, using the Systems Design Model helps to make
instruction easier. The model helps teachers design goals and objectives, pick appropriate
instructional media/devices, and produce useful summative feedback on the unit itself (Gredler,
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2008). The teacher would first set goals for their learners, select the type of instruction and its
delivery, select relevant media, and then test the learning objectives (Gredler, 2008). An
example would be creating a course on how to learn multiplication tables. The teacher would set
a goal of learning the multiplication tables from the numbers one to ten. The teacher would first
help students learn basic multiplication practices. They could include computer games that teach
multiplication in a fun and engaging way. Lastly, they would check to make sure that their
lesson was feasible and test its effectiveness with their learners.
Skinner’s operant conditioning has three basic strategies that Gredler provides in her
book Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice. The first is developing “the appropriate
use of discriminative stimuli and reinforcement in classroom interactions” (Gredler, 2008, p.
136). For example, punishing a correct behavior would not be conducive in helping the
learner. The second basic strategy is shaping instruction in a step by step process (Gredler,
2008). If the student is learning how to swing a golf club, then the student can slowly build
toward learning a full swing. The student could start by learning how to take the club away from
the ball, then how to turn their shoulders and hips, then set their hands, and then release the club
on the downswing, and finish with their follow through. Lastly, a teacher should develop
“individualized instructional materials” (Gredler, 2008, p.136) for each student. Going with the
golf example, a student may be fantastic at taking the club away from the ball. Instead of
continuously instructing the student on this move, the teacher could move onto the next step of
the shaping process and help the student improve upon and add new skills to what they already
bring to the table.
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What are this theory's major strengths/weaknesses?
The major issue with operant conditioning and behaviorism in general, is its lack of
including cognitive skill sets into the learning environment (Hill, 2001). Because the mind is
ignored, feelings are often ignored as being too ambiguous (Gredler, 2008). Operant
conditioning could thus be improved by using a similar attitude category that Gagne’s conditions
of learning employ. Also, by validating a learner’s feelings better learning can take place. If a
learner gets angry at a subject, but does not have time to speak out about how they feel, the
learner may not be able to get the most out of a lesson (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 2010).
The strength of operant conditioning is its ability to be used across a wide variety of
human learning platforms and needs (Hill, 2001). As shown earlier, operant conditioning can
help health practitioners and teachers alike. Since the theory revolves around behavioral change,
or an ability to learn a new behavior altogether, most any educator can find a use for the theory.
Scholars have found a few weaknesses with Gagne’s conditions of learning. One
weakness is the theory’s lack of acknowledging the learner’s ability to initiate learning and the
learning process in general (Smith, Ragan, Curda, 2008). Essentially, everything is placed on the
instructor, in terms of generating learning material, their interest in it, and making the learner
connect to prior knowledge. Some students will not need this assistance and those students may
feel stagnant or bored by a lack of challenge. Smith, Ragan, and Curda also cite a lack of
empirical evidence between “internal processes and external events” (2008, p. 390).
There are multiple strengths that pertain to Gagne’s conditions of learning. Firstly, the
theory “approaches learning from the viewpoint of the instructor” (Beavers et al., 2003, p.
1). The instructor can use the nine steps to create a realistic course, learning module, etc., which
will allow him or her to use their appropriate instructional skills. The theory is also applicable to
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OPERANT CONDITIONING AND GAGNE’S CONDITIONS
a multitude of learning domains. Teachers can pick the learning category (motor, verbal, etc.)
that their teaching towards and then design their instruction based off of that. The theory
essentially maps out the course development, teaching, and evaluation process for the instructor.
What are some academic references (articles/websites) pertaining to this theoretical
perspective?
Many resources are available for those who wish to gain a firm understanding of either
theory. Gredler’s Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice offers extensive chapters for
each representative theory that lays out their history, their key terms and ideas, and how they can
be applied to the classroom. Richard Culatta, on his website Instructional Design, gives a more
condensed review of both theories that will allow a learner to get a quick, but resourceful amount
of knowledge about the two theories. There are an extensive amount of journal articles on the
two learning theories as well. Firstly, both Skinner and Gagne wrote numerous articles that can
be accessed through JSTOR, Ebsco, and Google Scholar. Secondly, scholars such as Irving
Kirsch, Patricia Smith, and Tillman Ragan have produced articles on these theories as
well. Their articles can be found in the references section.
Section Two: Implications on Instruction
These two theories seem to be able to be combined by instructors. Operant conditioning
is well regarded as a classroom management based theory (Tauber, 2007), while Gagne’s
theories allow a teacher a great deal of control over instruction.
Due to this, if the teacher can
control the classroom, training environment etc., using operant conditioning, then the teacher
will be able to effectively use Gagne’s theories more smoothly.
Obviously, this connection will depend on the training/learning environment. If one is
teaching in elementary school, then the use of classroom management practices will be one of
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the most important aspects of this combination. However, if one is training college students, less
classroom management will be necessary, but much more attention gaining skills will be
necessary. As such, which theory that is primarily used will depend on the learning audience.
This combination of theories seems natural to the training environments I am a part of
here at CSUMB. I routinely present on different Student Affairs topics at our department’s
training events and at regional Student Housing events. Many times I have created sessions
using the ADDIE model, however, the ADDIE model does not account for how to deal with your
learners quite like operant conditioning can. Also, Gagne’s nine events of instruction seem to
incorporate much of the ADDIE model, while also adding important aspects like gaining the
learner’s attention, etc. By using reinforcement practices, I can help students to see what they
should continue doing and not doing.
My next training session will teach resident advisors how to use different tech-based
educational programs and websites to connect with their residents. I plan to use the nine steps of
instruction because it will allow me go through the entire learning process for both my attendees
and for myself as the instructor. I also want to involve the reinforcement strategies present in
operant conditioning. My major focus will be trying to quell the major escapist behavior of most
technology users. Most users of a technology, who use something they don’t understand, quit
using it. By helping learners slowly build the skills to use certain technologies, hopefully I will
be able to help them change this negative mindset and escapist behavior.
Section Three - Real World Examples
Operant conditioning has many real world examples that are readily apparent. McCurdy
and Swanger in the Encyclopedia of School Psychology, share an example of a child that behaves
perfectly at home, yet misbehaves in school because his/her behavior is positively reinforced by
OPERANT CONDITIONING AND GAGNE’S CONDITIONS
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his/her classmates (2005). This is a common occurrence for those in the world of education. As
both a basketball coach, and a student affairs educator, I have had to routinely deal with this type
of situation. Punishing children, or adults, routinely allows them to justify their misbehavior
(McCurdy & Swanger, 2005), blame someone else for it, or lose interest in whatever they are
learning (Gredler, 2008).
As a basketball coach I routinely see this issue. The kids come from class and instantly
try to act “cool”, swear, etc., thinking that that behavior will be okay with me since I am younger
myself. I routinely have to focus on behavioral change because of it. Punishment rarely works
in solving the problem. Kids think it is funny when they get in trouble. So, instead I focus on
modeling the behavior I prefer to see and rewarding players (McCurdy & Swanger, 2005) who
change their ways with more playing time, no sprints, etc. By rewarding students for their good
behavior, and behavior that was being taught, is “reinforced” and “will be expected to occur in
the future” (McCurdy & Swanger, 2005). While not a perfect classroom example, one can see
how operant conditioning can be helpful to any teacher, even if only for its application in
classroom management.
Anthony Orton shared how Gagne’s theory can be applied in math classes in his book,
Learning Mathematics: Issues, Theory, and Classroom Practice. Orton wrote that Gagne’s
theory can help teachers devise better learning hierarchies for students, mainly by removing the
need to reteach basic prerequisites (2004). For example, a student learning Geometry would
most likely not need to be retaught what a right angle is or basic addition or subtraction. Orton
determined that Gagne’s theory “is likely to enhance the quality and quantity of learning” (2004,
p. 47) in a mathematics classroom. Most importantly, Gagne’s conditions allow information to
OPERANT CONDITIONING AND GAGNE’S CONDITIONS
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be more easily structured, for both the teacher and the learner (Orton, 2004; Beavers et al.,
2003). This can allow for students to not be as overwhelmed by whatever is being taught.
When looking over the nine events of instruction, I instantly recognized how we
essentially use Gagne’s nine events to create and implement educational programs in our Student
Housing department on campus. We first try to gain the learner’s attention by advertising what
they will learn and how they will learn from a program. When learners arrive at the program we
then inform them of the schedule of events and the learning outcomes of the program. One such
event was a “Mocktail” event, which we use to teach students about safe drinking habits and how
to watch their drinks at a party. The event title usually garners interest by itself, so it is easier to
get students engaged with the desired learning outcomes.
At this event, we usually try to bring up relevant examples that may spark prior
knowledge of the learner. For example, we might “drug” someone’s drink (putting a piece of
candy in it) to show how easy it is to not know what is actually in one’s drink at a
party. Routinely, we have students who can recall stories from friends, things they heard in past
wellness classes, and other relevant anecdotes. As such, we can then provide them further
information on the subject and answer each individual question about the subject as they come
up. We then usually let the “teaching” aspect of the program die down and then go back to see if
the students are continuing to pay attention, by once again using candies to “drug” drinks. We
also usually tally their drinks on a notepad to show how intoxicated they would be if there was
actually alcohol in them. Our educational program gives them a more realistic look at how they
need to be careful at parties, both in terms of alcohol ingestion and in watching for potential
unsafe party goers.
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Conclusion
Operant conditioning and Gagne’s conditions are two important learning theories. While
seen as different and adversarial, the two seem to work well together (when piecing together
certain parts). I plan to use operant conditioning to better manage my training environments,
while using Gagne’s nine events when constructing and creating training modules. I will then
assign the learning tasks and skills being learned to one of his categories to see how the
information can be taught best.
OPERANT CONDITIONING AND GAGNE’S CONDITIONS
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References
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instruction. (2003). The Office for Teaching and Learning Newsletter, 1-4. Retrieved
from http://www.otl.wayne.edu/pdf/newsltr/may03.pdf
Culatta, R. (2013). Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner). Retrieved from
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operant-conditioning.html
Culatta, R. (2013). Conditions of learning (Robert Gagne). Retrieved from
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10.1002/jclp.10251
Orton, A. (2004). Learning mathematics: Issues, theory and classroom practice. (3rd ed.).
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