Download COMMENTARY On the Diversity of Nature and the Nature of Diversity

COMMENTARY
On the Diversity of Nature
and the Nature of Diversity
I met a traveller from an antique land Who said: Two vast and
trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert ... Near them, on the
sand, Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whosefrown, And wrinkled
lip, and sneer of cold command; Tellthat itssculptor well thosepassions read Which yet survive, ~tamped on these lifeless things, The
hand that mocked them, and the heart thatfed: And on thepedestal
these words appear: 'My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: Look
on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!" Nothing beside remains.
Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare The
lone and level sands stretchfar away.
-"Ozymandias"
Percy Bysshe Shelley
LLoYD KNUTSON
D
IVERSITYwas the theme of the
1988 meeting of the Entomological
Society of America, chosen to link
with themes of other recent meetings: Habitat in 1986 and Evolution in 1987.It was to
express an essential aspect of insects and
related organisms, of entomology, and of
the Entomological Society of America. I
wish to relate entomology to the broad issue
of the preservation of biotic diversity and to
explore some aspects of entomology and
ESAfor which diversity may be of value.
My intention is to present a message of
challenge, one of shared responsibility. My
message contains several somewhat related
aspects: the general issue of the preservation of diversity, areas of entomology that
are related to issues of diversity, aspects of
ESA for which emphasis on diversity is of
benefit to the science and our membership,
and a call for action on specific items.
Preservation of Diversity
When, in the 1960s, we saw the first pictures of Earth from space, and when, in
1969, we saw man's first step in the dead
0013-8754/89/0007-0011'02.00/0
dust of the barren desert of the moon, we
saw the uniqueness and vitality of our blue
and green globe-and,
we hope, we realized its fragility. Yet the very ability to fly to
the moon and to see Earth from space,
shows us as tragic figures. We stand kneedeep in environmental sewage, in a worldwide shambles of our own making, and we
sling rockets at the stars. Meanwhile, an irretrievable legacy of diversity is being lost.
In 1986, the Smithsonian Institution and
the National Academy of Sciences jointly
sponsored a symposium on biodiversity, at
which such entomologists as Paul R. Ehrlich, Thomas Eisner, Charles D. Michener,
and E. O. Wilson characterized
the insults-the
threats-to
our global ecosystem as second in importance only to the
threat of thermonuclear destruction. The
preservation of biotic diversity, according to
many, is the issue that stands at the crossroads of the future of the human race.
These statements are not mere rhetoric.
They are based on solid knowledge of
global warming; disruption of the ozone
layer; air, water, and soil pollution; acid rain
and acid soils; degradation in groundwater
quality; erosion; the pressure of energy demands-whether
from the growth in electricity production in the industrialized na-
~ ]989 Entomological Society of America
tions or deforestation
in developing
countries; depletion of natural resources;
problems of hazardous waste disposal; and
homogenization of agricultural and natural
ecosystems by aggressive invading species.
At the root of these problems is the primary
challenge to human survival: exponential
increases in population that cause overproduction and overuse. The problem with
humans and the biosphere is that there are
too many humans and not enough biosphere.
We humans stand at the apex of the pyramid of life, but we are systematically removing the stones at the base. The most invasive, "weedy" species of all time, we appear
to be on a suicidal mission to destroy the
very life support system on which our future depends. Why? Significantly, because
we and our leaders do not appreciate the
extent of biotic diversity, do not understand
very well the life support processes that depend on diversity, and thus do not underKNUTSON is director of the USDA-ARS Biological Control of Weeds Laboratory in Rome
(U.S. Embassy-Agriculture,
APO New York, N.Y.
09794). This commentary is adapted from his
presidential address before the 1988 ESA Annual
Meeting in Louisville, Ky.
LLOYD
7
stand the value of maintaining a high level
of natural diversity. Blinded by ignorance,
we poorly protect and poorly manage biotic
diversity, the thin veneer of fragile, complex
ecosystems that cover the "superorganism,"
Earth. As we inappropriately use a fraction
of diversity we are exterminating its larger
part. And curiously, we who are the cause of
biotic chaos appear to be an endangered
species.
I agree with the outlook of the founders
of the Society of Conservation Biology,who
stated in forming that mission-oriented, interdisciplinary scientific society that it is
implicit that nature can be preserved. What
value would there be in studying our own
destruction unless we could avoid it? But
there is little time, perhaps only a few decades, in which to rescue ourselves from environmental disaster. Time does not allow
the luxury of compiling masses of data;
even the lowest estimates of human-induced extinction rates are sufficient for decision making. The need for information
and its management is to find ways to solve
the problem of biotic diversity Some believe that the great environmental struggles
will be won or lost in the 1990s.The clock is
ticking.
Transfer of scientific information to the
public and its use in legislation is crucial to
the process of dealing with the biodiversity
crisis, and ESAhas many roles to play in that
process. The essence of these roles is expressed in the theme of our centennial:
"Entomology Serving Society"
One important role, one opportunity, is
to carry out research and provide information on diversity-the
diversity of insects
and related organisms. There is a long tradition in ESA of interest in biotic diversity
C. V.Riley, first president of the American
Association of Economic Entomologists,
founded the National Insect Collection and
started the first, but short-lived, Bureau of
Biological Survey Other illustrations can be
found in the work of such writers as Howard Evans (Life on a Little-Known Planet)
and E. O. Wilson (The Little Things That
Run the World).
Entomology and agriculture are closely
linked. Although agroecosystems displace
natural ecosystems, there are strong proponents of biotic diversity who work in agriculture, from growers to policy makers.
One important piece of legislation, the
Food Security Act of 1985, included major
provisions related to habitat protection and
restoration: "Sodbuster," "Swamp buster,"
the Conservation Reserve, conservation setasides, and easement provisions. This bill
and others are solid evidence of public concern translated into legislative action. Other
examples of action taken include the state,
federal, and private edifice of land manage8
ment and environmental agencies and programs; the reauthorization and strengthening of the Endangered Species Act of 1973;
the 191 million acres in our system of national parks and grasslands; the 90 million
acres in the Fish and Wildlife Service refuge
system; the 3.5 million acres preserved by
the Nature Conservancy and its cooperators
in the past four decades; the U.S.Agency for
International Development's consideration
of environmental impact in planning its
programs; and a House Science Committee
report stressing biological diversity and
conservation biology in the National Science Foundation Authorization Act for 1989.
However, the scope ofthese efforts is limited.
The Endangered Species Act, for example, protects critical habitats, primarily on
u.s. federal property. Of the 485 species
listed as endangered or threatened in the
United States, nearly half are plants; only 15
are insects. Yet the total of U.S. flora and
fauna is at least one-half million species, of
which only 200,000 have been described.
Perhaps the most significant new step
that is intended to go beyond the current
U.S. ecological safety net is the National Biological Diversity, Conservation, and Environmental Research Act, which was introduced by a bipartisan group of more than
80 sponsors to the House of Representatives
in the spring of 1988.Although some agency
officials consider this act a duplication of
existing legislation, its proponents emphasize that it is the proper purview of the federal government to evaluate the long-term
effects of individual policies. A more limited bill was planned for Senate introduction.
The House bill would establish the conservation of biological diversity as a national goal. It also would require a federal
program for maintaining and restoring biological diversity in the United States, require that biological diversity impact be
included in environmental impact assessments and statements, and establish a national center for biological diversity to improve knowledge of biological resources
and ways they can be managed to protect
diversity
A few entomologists, notably K. C. Kim
and Michael Kosztarab, have been directly
involved in discussions of the legislation.
1Woof our affiliated societies, the American
Institute of Biological Sciences (AlBS) and
the Association of Systematics Collections
(ASC), have been active in keeping scientists and the public informed about the resolution and in providing information and
testimony to Congress.
The overwhelming diversity of insectsin number but also in biology, life form,
habitats exploited, and distribution-has
begun to enter into these discussions. Although species with fur, feathers, or leaves
often hold center stage with the public,
there is a growing awareness of the need to
conserve all forms of life. Of course, the
value of high-profile species, such as pandas, elephants, and whales, in conferring
protection on the less visible species occurring with them is being recognized. But it
is for this identity problem that I support
ESA's candidate for a national insect, and I
personally prefer a creature recognized for
its beauty, the monarch butterfly, to one
known for its industry, the honey bee.
In emphasizing the problem With biotic
diversity in the United States, I do not mean
to neglect other more serious situations.
The preservation of the tropics, which harbor about 60% of the Earth's flora and fauna
on just 6% of the planet's surface, is critical.
The rate of extinction in the tropics is a horrifying 0.7% annually, a result of the destruction of 25,000 square miles a year.
Apart from the problems of social distress
that will result from tropical destruction,
the well being of the rest of the globe is at
stake. An International approach to the
problem is essential to preserving biological diversity. Rep. Claudine Schneider (RR.I.), who was coauthor of the biodiversity
bill with Rep. James H. Scheuer (D-N.Y.),
has stated that "The unchecked loss of biological diversity anywhere in the world
threatens all of us." But in testifying for ASC
about the act, malacologist George Davis
noted that the United States is "where we
have the greatest ability to act, the greatest
self-interest, the greatest know-how, and indeed, the greatest responsibility"
Ethics is becoming a significant part of
the issue. Philosopher Bryan Norton points
out in The Preservation of Species-The
Value of Biological Diversity that "The
problem is, on the deepest level, not scientific but perceptual and attitudinaL" E. O.
Wilson writes in the introduction to the
proceedings of the Smithsonian-National
Academy of Sciences biodiversity symposium that "In the end, I suspect it will all
come down to a decision of ethics." In the
same volume, Paul R. Ehrlich considers how
it is that the analysis of scientific studies
only points toward our need to come to almost a religious belief in the moral necessity of preserving diversity David Challinor,
then assistant secretary for research at the
Smithsonian, notes in the book's epilogue
that "World leaders, who must make hard
economic choices, may be so overwhelmed
by more acute problems that they may not
choose to invest in the security of humanity
by perpetuating biological diversity." He
concludes that the solution depends on the
collective behavior and perception of people toward their habitat.
BUll.ETIN OF THE ESA
loss in the interest in observation, in oldfashioned natural history? How many of us
will take time to watch a caterpillar crawl
around for hours searching for its special,
cryptic pupation site, so that pupae can be
collected en masse as needed for biological
control studies?
We have learned to expect the unexpected of insects-blood-sucking
moths;
snail-killing flies; larvae that live in hot
springs, arctic waters, petroleum pools, or
salt lakes. Although much remains to be
learned about economically important species, concentration of research on a minute
and atypical segment of insect life, the
"pests," gives a biased picture of ecological
relationships. To balance our preoccupation with destructive agents, we would do
well to look at the world from the insect
point of view, as exemplified in the studies
of Clifford Berg, Benjamin A. Foote, Richard
D. Goeden, James L. Krysan, Robert W.Matthews, Carl W.Rettenmeyer, George B. Vogt,
Robert F.Whitcomb, and Thomas K. Wood,
among others. We cannot gain a complete
understanding of pollination, the effect of
colonizing species, parasitism, or predation
unless we study important noneconomic
groups. How we approach research on or
management of pest or beneficial insects
depends in part on our general understanding of insect biology. Insects are so many
and so diverse that we can never hope to
have an even sample of knowledge across
tions today have a practical urgency for
conservation planners and resource
managers.
Many of these questions can best be pursued by the study of insects and related organisms. The array of questions about immigrant organisms, the exotic species
accidentally or purposefully established in
new areas, is of interest both to applied and
to basic entomology. Long of interest to entomologists, the subject was brought to the
fore in Reece I. Sailer's 1977 ESApresidential address, "Our Immigrant Insect Fauna."
Immigrant species are significant from
practical and theoretical points of view as
pests; as beneficial species (especially as
natural enemies of introduced pests and as
pollinators); as noneconomic species that
affect native, noneconomic plants and animals; and as prime subjects for the study of
microevolutionary
and biogeographical
processes. Despite the importance of immigrant species and the fact that about
1,800 known immigrant species make up a
small portion (perhaps 2%) of the North
American fauna, it is surprising that information on their presence, geographic origin, adventive distribution, hosts, and prey
is limited. An important element in the diversity of insect fauna, in the rest of the
world as well as in North America, is inadequately known for economic and scientific
purposes. ESA members E. Richard Hoebecke, Thomas). Henry, John D. Lattin, A. G.
ogical products will fit into our ecosystems
the class. We will never know the biologies
Wheeler, Jr., Donald R. Whitehead, and oth-
in environmentally sound ways.
The area that deals most directly with diversity (and the one most threatened with
extinction itself) is systematics, which, as a
legitimate pursuit in and of itself, provides
the framework for relating the diverse data
of evolutionary biology. Its classifications
give critically important predictive information. Systematics is not simply a means
for managing the inventory of biotic diversity or a handmaiden to biological control,
plant quarantine, ecology, or other areas.
Without the effort and partnership of systematists, conservationists would not know
what to conserve, and ecologists could not
understand the dynamics of the ecosystems
to be saved. Unfortunately, the needs and
opportunities described for systematics by
Curtis W. Sabrosky in his 1969 ESA presidential address remain largely unfulfilled.
And Thomas Lovejoy,Smithsonian assistant
secretary for external affairs, notes that entomologists "seem strangely unstirred as a
group by the biological diversity problem."
Knowledge of the diversity of insect behavior is, like knowledge of systematics, a
basic and neglected area of study that is important to other areas. We are making great
advances in using modern technology to
analyze insect behavior, but is there some
of many species and genera of some families because of the lack of time and resources and because we are driving some
to extinction.
The importance of diversity in ecological
study was encapsulated by Robert M. May in
"The Search for Patterns in the Balance of
Nature: Advances and Retreats," which was
published in the journal Ecology in 1986:
Understanding the essentials of how
species originate was the most important intellectual achievement of the
19th century. It seems to me that the
next step-the
largely unanswered
question for the 20th century (and
maybe the 21st)-is to understand how
many species there are. The overall
question ... is composed of a mosaic
of subsidiary questions: what factors
determine the number of species we
expect to find in a given patch, or on a
continent, or on the globe? How is the
number of species in a given region
likely to be affected by particular kinds
of natural or human perturbation? ...
Such questions have the same intellectual fascination and importance as
questions about the forces binding nuclei or the large-scale structure of the
universe. More than this . . . the ques-
ers are contributing to this area.
Although I recognize that insect genetics,
physiology, pest management-in fact all aspects of entomology-interrelate
with issues of diversity, there is just one more focal
point I wish to discuss. Biological control is
an indicator of the health of our science and
a developing area that should be a significant part of ESA's future. Use of the diversity of nature to correct accidental pest introductions and to improve the health of
our natural and artificial ecosystems is the
objective of biological control. Thus, it has a
natural link to those potent issues in natural resource management: resistance, residues, resurgence, and groundwater quality,
which likely will become increasingly important in driving funding for many aspects
of entomology. Especially in biological control there is opportunity for ESAto contribute in the international arena.
Entomology and Diversity
Several areas of entomology have especially important relationships to issues of
biotic diversity. They are also examples of
the diversity of the science and of ESA.The
"big science" of molecular biology and the
"small science" of whole-organism biology
reflect the diversity of science, but they also
could exemplify the unity of science.
Aspects of entomology are in both sciences. The conflict between them is primarily a contest for funding that stands in the
way of fruilful integration. Certainly, wholeorganism biology has not been adequately
supported recently, and there is the fear
that such megaprojects as genome-mapping
studies will drain resources further. Are
our universities, as Robert Jenkins of the
Nature Conservancy has written, "Hell-bent
on turning their departments of biology
into biotechnology departments"? Are we
missing an important opportunity to form
useful links between diverse approaches
and interests? Entomology and other sciences can be made stronger by incorporating these unifying threads.
As an integral part of biotechnology, we
need the predictive powers of systematics
to guide our search for new sources of genetic material. We need classical biologists
to show us what diverse organisms have to
offer for directed mutation. And we need
the ecologists to show us how biotechnol-
WINTER 1989
Emphasis on Diversity
Benefits Science and Membership
With 8,300 members, ESA is the largest
entomological society in the world, surpassing the Entomological Society of China,
which has 7,000 members. Most ESA members (7,300) are U.S. citizens, although
9
about 400 of them work overseas. We have
about 400 Canadian and Mexican members,
and about 600 members in other countries.
Student membership has grown over the
past decade to the current total of about
1,200. There are only about 200 foreign student members, however, most of them are
studying in the United States.
The size and diversity of membership
provides ESAwith some opportunities and
responsibilities, particularly internationally.
Yet ESAdoes not have a strong international
posture. Other smaller societies have
placed more emphasis on international activities. The American Phytopathological Society, for example, recently established an
office in international affairs, which has a
specified budget. The evolution of our longterm Special Committee on International
Affairs, currently
chaired
pies of our recognition of this interest. Following the suggestion of several members
and a committee review, the Governing
Board has approved a Youth Member category.
Our organization has had a relatively
poor record with regard to the diversity of
its relationships with other organizations.
In recent years we have severed our ties
with some groups. I believe, however, that
the interest of much of ESA'smembership is
changing. We need to reconsider these relationships-not
entirely in the sense of
how much money we can save by not being
affiliated, but in the sense of what the membership loses by not having such ties. These
relationships are not bureaucratic considerations. They are important to the overall
membership.
The diversity
by Carrol O. Calk-
ins, into a standing committee would be an
important step forward.
Entomology has a special fascination for
many young people. Our Committee on
Youth Science Development, chaired by
Rick L.Brandenberg; the target audience for
our film "Discover Entomology"; and participation in science fairs are some exam-
of ESA's journals
is limited.
Our science is much broader than our few
publication outlets reflect. Journals started
by other publishers on other areas-insect
behavior, physiology, and morphologyshould have been started by ESA.Our purchase of the journal of Medical Entomology was a step in the right direction. We can
expect to lose authors, editors, and even
members if we do not pursue the possibility of new journals. We need a publication of
broad interest, and I hope that the Bulletin
in its reincarnation as the American Entomologist, will move quickly in that direction.
Call for Action
I call on each of us as members to consider some general and specific opportunities and needs. Although some of them relate to the broad issues of diversity, the
following is partly a summary of our activities in 1988. We have made progress on a
few.
I suggest that we continue to support
AIBS, ASC, and other organizations that
provide ESAwith a link to broad issues such.
as biotic diversity. We should also be build-
ing new connections with other natural resource organizations, including the Council
for Agricultural Science and 1echnology. We
should take a hard look at the nature of our
meetings and how effectively they relate entomology to the rest of the world. We should
consider the use of small, critical issues
seminars as a way to analyze where ento-
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mology should be more involved, and as a
mechanism for building bridges. We should
use these seminars to come to grips with
support for the most threatened aspects of
entomology-systematics,
international cooperation in biological control, and others.
We should shed our conservative attitude
about publications and go ahead with a
journal on biological control, a symposium
series, and establish our magazine as the
premier news outlet for our science.
We should employ a full-time entomologist to assist the administrative staff with
technical information,
to build those
bridges that require biopolitical expertise,
and to lead grant-supported projects such
as an information system on immigrant arthropods, an international directory of insect identification, and others.
We should establish an international programs office, develop international contacts,
and make a special effort to expand the
scope of our thinking on such international
issues as biological diversity. We should develop meaningful youth and amateur categories that provide substantial services to
their constituents. We should establish a
newsletter that will cover important state
and federal programs and policy actions.
We should support the inventorying of
the insect fauna of North America, improve
our relations with industry and the public,
and encourage the role of the American Registry of Professional Entomologists therein.
We need to develop a continuing-education
program in concert with branch, section,
and registry interests. We should engage in
service to entomologists from a not-forprofit perspective, and we should continue
in other appropriate ways to promote the
value of our discipline and profession.
The strength of our planet lies in the diversity of nature; the strength of ESAlies in
the nature of its diversity. Dedication to preserving diversity is the only acceptable future we have.
•
Acknowledgment
I thank the following for their comments on
this manuscript and the notes for the oral pres-
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entation on which it is based: R.V.Carr, M. Dourojeanni, P.H. Dunn, T.L. Erwin, D. Feir, K. C.
Kim, D. R. Kincaid, M. Kosztarab, M. Ma, R.j.
McGinley,J.J. Menn, D. R. Miller, B. C. Pass, P.C.
Quimby, Jr., R.L. Ridgway, and R. Villett. The following supplied photographs for use in the oral
presentation: M. Cristofaro, R. E Denno, D. Dussourd, L. Fornasari, R. D. Gordon, A. S. Menke,
D. R. Miller,J. Plaskowitz, A.Y.Rossman, and E C.
Thompson.
Suggested Reading
Kim, K C. & L. Knutson [eds.].
1986. Foundations for a national biological survey. Association of SystematiCS Collections, Lawrence,
Kans.
May, R. M. 1986. The search for patterns in the
balance of nature: advances and retreats. Ecology 67: 1l15-1126.
Norton, B. G. [ed.]. 1986. The preservation of
species. The value of biological diversity.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Wilson, E. O. 1987. The little things that run
the world (The importance and conservation
of invertebrates). Consen': BioI. 1: 344-346.
Wilson, E. O. [ed.] 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
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