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CHAPTER III
ZAMORINS RELATIONS WITH THE PORTUGUESE
The fifteenth century is of special significance in the history of Calicut. It was
by the end of this century that the region had exposed to trade and commerce with the
Portuguese.
They were the first European nation to enter into diplomatic and
commercial relations with the rulers of Malabar, in general, and those of Calicut and
their vassals, in particular1. It was an epoch of transition and growth in the history of
India and other oriental nations.
Following that event, European commercial,
economic and political interests found their way in to the various parts of the East,
subordinating their institutions, ideas, culture and practices. In Calicut, the European
epoch, inaugurated by Vasco-da-Gama, thus brought about a transformation in the
political, economic and social order. He had a particular goal to have contact with the
commercial city of Calicut.2
The Europeans knew that Calicut was the chief
emporium of trade on the West Coast3. As a heaven of merchants, it was a prosperous
trading port where the Arabs, namely the Moors, had established themselves as the
major trading partners abroad. Commodities from Calicut and Malabar were taken
to various parts of West Asia, Lavant and Europe, besides South East Asian countries
and the different parts of India. European traders were attracted to the Malabar
Coast mainly for its abundant produces of spices, especially for the much-valued
pepper which they called ‘black gold’.
The Portuguese found Calicut as the
1
W.H. Carey, The Good Old Days of Honourable John Company, (1600-1858),
Calcutta, 1882, p.1.
2
Radha Kumud Mookerji, (ed.), Indian Shipping, Calcutta, 1957, p. 9.
3
Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco- da-Gama, Cambridge,
1997, p.122.
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convenient ground to concentrate on their early commercial activities, as it was there,
and nowhere else in Malabar that the products they wanted to procure were available
abundantly. Only after the arrival of the Portuguese, the Arabs perceived fully the
growing threats to their business interests arising from Portuguese and their
commercial ambition and expansion. The monopoly of spice trade in Calicut paved
the way in later days for finding markets for their manufacturers and, again, to find
avenues for investment of capital, they turned their attention to other places in
Malabar region4.
Petty Kingdoms:
The history of Malabar, after the arrival of the Portuguese, presents a very
complex political set-up.
In the Malabar region, there were dominant petty
kingdoms and small independent states. The petty rulers and the independent states
quarrelled among themselves and had been constantly war with one another5. The
accounts of foreigners of the 15th century clearly indicate the position of the three
strong kings who ruled Malabar. They were Samudri (Malyconadary), Benetacy
(Venattadikal) and Cobertorim (Kolattiri). They had many vassals. According to
Duarte Barbosa, the kings of Kerala were only three, to wit, the Samudri whom they
called Malyconadary, and he of Coulam (Quilon) whom they called Benetacy
(Venattadikal), and he of Cannanore whom they called Cobertorim (Kolattiri).
Besides, there were many great lords who wished to be called kings, which they were
not, for they neither coined money nor built houses with roof and tiles6.
4
5
6
R.P. Rao, Portuguese Rule in India, 1510-1961, Calcutta, 1963, pp.23-24.
H. Smith, (reprinted), Reports of a Joint Commission from Bengal and Bombay,
1792-93, Vol. I, Madras, 1862, p.5.
Duarte Barbosa, The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Vol. II, New Delhi, 1989, pp.5-6.
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Following the downfall of the centralized administration of the Cheras,
numerous petty principalities, each under a Raja or a chief who possessed unfettered
independence in internal affairs, came into existence. The existence of such large
number of petty principalities and their constant quarrels worsened the already
confusing political set-up of Malabar in the middle ages. The minor powers not only
frequently quarrelled among themselves, but also at times even joined the enemy
against their own liege7. At the time of the arrival of the Portuguese in Malabar, the
Zamorin was the most powerful of all the princes of Malabar. He founded the
territory on the Malabar Coast and made Calicut his capital like an emperor8. The
capital city of Calicut was the most important place in Malabar where it had a port
visited by Europeans and earned the title the first port of India9. It took the foremost
place and was the emporium of trade in the East. Ibn Battuta who visited Calicut in
1342-47 describes Calicut as “one of the greatest ports of the district of Malabar,
where merchants from all parts of globe are found”. At the end of the 15th century,
Calicut became a leading centre through its commercial activities, though political life
was unsettled10. The Zamorin was relegated to the background and the Raja of
Cochin, who was a vassal to the Zamorin, rose to power and prominence on account
of the timely assistance given by the Portuguese11. It is important to note that along
with commercial activities, these European traders consciously played a political role
to expand their commercial activities in the important cities, and also to interfere with
7
A.P.Ibrahim Kunju, Studies in Medieval Kerala History, Trivandrum, 1995, p.10.
8
J. Johnovington, India in the 17th Century, Vol. I, New Delhi, 1984, pp.149-150.
9
Walter Hamilton, The East India Gazetteer, Vol. I, Delhi, 1984, p.326.
10
K.M. Panikkar, History of Kerala, Annamalainagar, 1960, p.27.
11
Malabar Commission, Foreign Miscellaneous, Vol.55, p.7.
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the internal affairs of the neighbouring States.
Owing to the appearance of the
European power on India dates from the arrival of Vasco-da-Gama on its shore.12
Maritime trade by sea between Europe and the East began only at the end of the 15th
Century.13
Portuguese in Calicut:
Portugal was an important sea power dating back to the pre-Christian era. She
had many colonies in the world even before geographical discoveries were made14.
The Portuguese earned the title of “the sovereigns of the seas”15 because, during the
course of time, they mostly controlled the sea-borne trade and sea-traffic in the world.
In the same way, during the early days of the Zamorins of Calicut, they described
themselves as “the sovereign of the mountains and the sea”16. Before the arrival of
Vasco-da-Gama in Malabar, particularly in Calicut, the Portuguese ruler King John
had acquired some knowledge about India17.
He had the awareness to send
adventurers to India.
12
Mount-Stuart-Elphinatone, The Rise of British Power in India, Delhi, 1986, p. 1.
13
C.J. Hamilton, The trade relations between England and India (1600-1896),
Calcutta, 1919, p. 5.
14
F.C. Danvers, Report to the Secretary of State for India in the Council on the
Portuguese Records Relating to the East India, New Delhi, 1991, p.1-8.
15
Surendranath Sen, Studies in Indian History, New Delhi, 1993, p.61.
16
L.A. Krishna Iyer, Social History of Kerala, Vol. I, Madras, 1968, p.7.
17
K.M. Mathew, History of the Portuguese Navigation in India, 1497-1600, Delhi,
1988, p.103.
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Joao Peres de Covillhao who was commissioned by Dom Manuel, the King of
Portugal18, was the first Portuguese adventurer to land on the Indian Coast in 1487.
The adventurer was directed to discover the land of Prester John and the territory
where the spices were procured. Joao Peres de Covillhao reached Cannanore in a
Moorish ship and later reached Calicut. He collected all the information about the
production and trade of ginger, pepper and cinnamon19. He was the first European to
visit Calicut in 1486 and his visit gives valuable information. He further went to Goa,
Ormuz and Cairo for trade20. Finally, he submitted a report to the king that the
Portuguese ships trading with Guinea could as well extend their journey along the
Coast of Sofala to reach the Eastern Seas and probably to touch the port of Calicut.
The adventurous deeds of Joao Peres de Covilhao tempted the rulers of Portugal to
take up the matter seriously and they sent the ships to India, especially to Calicut.
The commercial goods of the Malabar Coast prompted the Portuguese navigators to
go to the East for discovering a new trade route to India and for expanding trade with
the Orient. The spices of Malabar in general and pepper in particular highly attracted
the attention of the foreigners throughout the world21.
Arrival of Vasco-da-Gama to Calicut:
The acquired knowledge of the rulers of Portugal about the Malabar Coast in
India changed the attitude of the natives and they expanded their trade in the East with
18
P.N. Chopra, T.K. Ravindran, N. Subramaniam, History of South India, Vol. II,
New Delhi, 1979, pp.1-2.
19
Felix Barker, A History of Discovery and Exploration – The Search Begins,
London, 1973, p.433.
20
The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. IX, New Delhi, p.290.
21
Francis, Nicholson Middle Miss, Borber, Gazetteer of South India, Vol. I, Delhi,
1988, pp. 18-19.
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the support of the native rulers. The Portugal king Dom Manuel earned the title, “the
Lord of the Navigation, Conquest and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and
India”22. He acquired this knowledge through the traders of Egypt and Rome, from
early records and the Moorish travellers. The King of Portugal sent the Portuguese
navigator Vasco-da-Gama and his brother Pauls to the East. They conducted the
extraordinary voyage with the help of the Moorish broker from Bombay, Davane by
name, whom he picked up in Mozambique23. Vasco-da-Gama took up his voyage
from Lisbon on July 8th 1497 and continued his voyage for a period of 10 months.
Later, he anchored his ship on 20th May 1498 at Kappad, eight miles north of
Calicut24. It became a new sea-route to India and later to revolutionize the course of
the mainstream of world commerce25. The memorial pillar (plate one & two) with the
inscription “Vasco-da-Gama landed here at Kappakkadavu in the year 1498”,
proclaims the historical importance of the place from where started the European
expansion in India. The landing of Gama at Calicut marked the beginning of a new
epoch. Gama’s discovery kindled a new interest to know more about India and its
commodities in European markets26.
It had a far-reaching consequence on the
civilized world27. The real importance of the new discovery lay in the fact that it
22
K.M. Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean, London, 1945, p.40.
23
P.N. Chopra, Op.cit., Vol. II, (1979), p.2.
24
H.V. Livermore, A History of Portugal, Cambridge, 1947, p.230.
25
E.F. Daten, European Travellers in India, New Delhi, 1991, p.49.
26
H.K. Kaul (ed.), Travellers India, An Anthology, New Delhi, 1979, p. XXVII,
p.350.
27
P.N. Chopra (ed.), The Gazetteer of India, History Culture, Delhi, 1973, p. 350.
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broke the monopoly which the Venetians and Egyptians had so long enjoyed in their
trade with India28.
Ushering in a new era:
The discovery of a new sea-route to India opened a new era in world history,
especially to Portugal. It also paved the way for the rise of European imperialism and
the economic exploitation of the flourishing nations of the East29. With the historic
voyage of Gama, the Portuguese penetrated into an ancient and intricate maritime
economy, comprising a galaxy of long distance and country trades, many of them
concerned with commodities of the highest value. The arrival of the Portuguese and
their lucrative trade resulted in the ruin of the sea-borne trade of the Moors in the
Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and the Red sea. Gama’s arrival brought great prestige to
his nation and Portugal was familiarly described as the “Da Gama epoch” in Asian
history30. When Gama landed at Calicut, the Zamorin, the most powerful ruler among
the princes of Kerala,31 extended freedom of religion and commercial facilities to all
the people. Gama was very quick to realize this state of affair. The Zamorin, who
was at Ponnani, immediately noticed the arrival of the Portuguese32.
28
E.G. Ravenstein, A Journal of the First voyage of Vasco-da-gama 1497-1499,
New Delhi, 1995, p. 61
29
K.S. Mathew, Mariners, Merchants and Oceans Studies in Maritime History, New
Delhi, 1995, p.273.
30
Phaindranath Chakrabarthy, Anglo-mughal Commercial Relations, 1583-1717,
Calcutta, 1983, pp. 6-7
31
Francis Day, Land of the Perumals, Madras, 1863, p.73.
32
Philip Baladaeus, A Description of East India Coasts of Malabar, New Delhi,
1996, p. 625.
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Initial cordial relationship between the Zamorin and the Portuguese:
The Zamorin welcomed the Portuguese heartily and addressed the foreigners
that “Vasco-da-Gama, a gentleman of your household, came to my country, which
gave me great pleasure. In my country there is plenty of cinnamon, clove, pepper and
precious stones. The things I am desirous to have out of your country are silver, gold,
coral and scarlet33. Gama conveyed his mission to the Zamorin. In reply, the king
said that “he was welcome, that, on his part, he held him as a friend and brother and
would send ambassadors with him to Portugal”34. The king requested the Captain
General to conduct his ships to Pantalayini Kollam, which was safer than Calicut
during the monsoons35. The Zamorin received the Portuguese navigator and his party
in a special durbar. Compliments were exchanged and the Captain Major made a
speech explaining his mission and the desire of the Portugal King to open commercial
relations with India. The Zamorin’s answer to the request for commercial facilities
was vague, and Gama was asked to communicate it to the treasurer of the King. The
parting was cordial, the Portuguese and the people of the town met on friendly terms.
They were allowed to have contacts with local agents36. But Gama was not satisfied
because the kind of stuff he had brought from Lisbon for exchange in India was not
suitable for the Indian markets37.
The relation between the Zamorin and the
Portuguese was cordial in the initial stages and later there were misunderstandings on
33
K.G. Jayne, Vasco-da-Gama and his Successors (1460-1580), London, 1910,
p.58.
34
Charlay Ley (ed.), Portuguese Voyages, London, 1953, p.33.
35
Ibrahim Kunju, Op.cit., (1995), p.17.
36
Sukhdev SinghChile, Op.cit., (1988), p.13.
37
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1945), p.37.
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the part of the Portuguese. It is true that when the Portuguese came to this port, he
(Zamorin) gave them a place to open a factory and sent a Gujarati merchant to instruct
them in the customs and manners of the country. But the ambitious demand of the
Portuguese created a friction in the relation between the Zamorin and the Portuguese.
The Portuguese demanded that the Zamorin should give an exclusive and preferential
treatment to them by preventing merchants not only from any other nationality but
also the Indian merchants in trade. This was not liked by the Zamorin. He declared
in categorical terms that the port of Calicut would always remain open to all and it
would be impossible for him to prevent any one, whether a Muslim or anybody from
trading with Calicut because the Zamorin knew the income derived from foreign
trade38. But the Portuguese did not like the customs policy of the native rulers. The
rulers followed a general policy that a nominal charge be levied for the issue of
passes. The ships on their return voyage were found to visit the specified port under
Portuguese surveillance and pay the customs duties. These were the causes for the
misunderstanding between them. So, the Portuguese Captain had to leave Calicut39.
It is inferred that Gama made an attempt to return from Calicut port without paying
the customs duties40.
Conflict between the Portuguese and the Arabs:
The arrival of the Portuguese at once aroused the greatest jealousy among the
Moors. The Muslims, also called the Moors, and the Mappilas had played very
38
K.S. Mathew, Studies in Maritime History, Pondicherry, 1990, p.17.
39
P.N. Chopra, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1973), p.351.
40
F.C. Danvers, The Portuguese in India, Vol. I, London, 1894, pp.63-64.
65
important roles in the maritime history41. It was proved that the Arab travellers of the
9th and 10th centuries speak of the Malabar ports as great centers of maritime trade
and their trade was in the hands of the Arabs. During the time of Gama, the Arabs
were already in full control of the Malabar trade42. Ludovico Varthema mentions
“the Arabs, known as Paradesees, had discovered India before the Portuguese and
were so powerful and independent in the city that no one dared to enter it on account
of their pride”43. The Portuguese called the Muslims Corsairs44. The Arabs were
maintained cordial relations with the natives and intermingled with the socio-cultural
activities of the people. Moreover, they concentrated their attention on promoting
their activities of maritime trade. So the rulers sanctioned important privileges to the
Arabs. They were given practically the monopoly of export and import in Calicut and
they established themselves as a commercial power but they did not interfere with the
internal administration of the Zamorin’s45. Under these circumstances, the Arabs
opposed the trade monopoly of the Portuguese. The Zamorins supported the Arabs
against the Portuguese46.
Later a long brawl ensued between the Moors and
41
Patrica Risso, Merchants Faith, Muslim Commerce and Culture in the Indian
Ocean, Colarado (USA), 1995, p.89.
42
Alan Villiers, The Way of a Ship, London, 1954, pp.68-71.
43
Lodovico Varthema, The Navigation and Voyages of Lews Vertomans in 1503 in
Selection of Curisons, Rare and Early Voyages and Histories of interesting
discoveries, R.H.Evens, London, 1812, p.184.
44
Philip D. Curtain, Cross Cultural Trade in World History, Cambridge, 1984,
p.132.
45
S. Manickam, “The Moplahs of Malabar”, Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol. I,
Serial No. 293, January, 1976, pp.267-268.
46
R. Ramachandran Nair, “The Socio-Political Landscape of Kerala”, Journal of
Kerala Studies, Vol. I, Serial No. 293, January 1976.
66
Vasco-da-Gama regarding the Zamorin and the trade in his country47. The Portuguese
tried to break the Muslim monopoly of maritime trade and got embroiled in a
prolonged conflict with the Moorish rivals.
The Moors began immediately to
interfere with the authorities for the destruction of the expedition. According to
William Logan, “when Gama sent Nicholas Coelh on a shore with a message to
Zamorin asking him to sanction trade, the authorities tried his temper by making him
wait, thinking thus to cause a break with the Portuguese. But, being warned by the
Castilian whom they found in the palace, he exercised patience, on declining to give
this message to any but the King himself, he was at last admitted to an audience, and
after further delay the King gave his sanction written on a palm leaf for opening
trade”48.
Vasco-da-Gama stayed nearly for 6 months on the Malabar Coast before he
set out to return to Portugal49, when the monsoon was over. He departed on 30th
August 1498 with rich cargos and a letter from the Zamorin to the King of Portuguese
proposing an interchange of commerce. The letter of Zamorin highly praised the new
comers of Portugal as “gentlemen”. He expressed his pleasure and informed that
Calicut produced plenty of cinnamon, clove, pepper and precious stones. “Instead of
these I am desirous of getting silver, gold and coral and scarlet from your country”50.
When Gama departed from Calicut, he committed a high handed and undiplomatic
deed by carrying away eighteen fishermen as captives who were the subjects of the
47
Francis Day, Op.cit., (1893), p.74.
48
William Logan, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1951), p.399.
49
Sir Harry Johnson, Pioneers in India, New Delhi, 1977, p.119.
50
Esmond Wright (ed.), History of the World, London, 1985, p.579.
67
native king51. This was an important factor for the collapse of the relation between
the ruler of Calicut, the Arab traders and the Portuguese. The main motive of Gama
was to avoid the payment of customs duties to the Zamorin52. Another reason was
that he was not able to set up a factory as he wanted53. At the same time, Gama
claimed for his master, the sovereignty of the Indian seas54. Finally, the Zamorin
released the distained persons and goods, Gama carried away five fishermen as
captives. In course of time, the Zamorin took action and held a meeting with Gama.
They entered into a treaty of friendship between the two countries. The Zamorin
provided Gama with all commodities he required55. Shortly after leaving Calicut,
Gama appeared at Cannanore, where the ruler of Kolattiri, a hereditary enemy of the
Zamorin, invited Gama to his dominion. There they entered into some informal
agreements and the native King helped him load his ships with spices56. Later, Gama
set sail for Europe on 20th November 1498.
Success of Gamas’s Voyage:
In the general opinion of scholars, Gama’s voyage was a great success from
the commercial point of view. But Gama felt that the establishment of Portuguese
trade with Malabar would require the eradication of Moorish influence from the
court of the Zamorin. Also, he noted that there was continuous quarrel between the
51
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1864), p.63.
52
P.N. Chopra, Op.cit., Vol. II, (1979), p.3.
53
Longman, Encyclopaedia of World History, London, 1985, p.22.
54
K.M. Panikkar, India Through the Ages, Delhi, 1985, p.22.
55
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., (1864), pp.63-64.
56
C.R. Boxer, The Portuguese Sea-Borne Empire, London, 1960, p.60.
68
Zamorin and the Kolattiri due to their vassals. “After rewarding all who had taken
part in this great enterprise the ships were unloaded, and their freight of pepper and
drugs were carefully weighed and valued; when it was found that, after taking all
expenses of the voyage into consideration, the value of the cargo brought home was
sixty to one compared with all the expenses of the voyages”57. The worth of Gama’s
voyage triggered the ambition of the Portuguese King and the people58.
Though the event was inadvertent, the Portuguese were fortunate in landing at
Calicut. The political condition and commercial facilities in Malabar were superb
for the realization of their aim. “It was on this shut off western Coast that the
Portuguese alighted, and it was destined to remain the sole theatre of their conquests
within India. The Portuguese might have searched India in vain for a spot better
suited to their commerce”59.
It was lack of diplomacy and ignorance in the local political climate that
caused Gama to pick up a quarrel with the Zamorin. The Zamorin was actually
expecting the new comer to open up trade in his country. He wanted to use that
power, whoever it is, against the Moors whose overwhelming influence upon the
economy of the country was a matter of anxiety for all. The successful discovery of
Gama and his valuable account encouraged the King of Portugal to send another
commander Alvarez Cabral on a trading expedition60.
57
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1864), pp.63-64.
58
K.M. Mathew, Op.cit., (1988), p.112.
59
Sir William Hunter, A History of British India, Vol. I, London, 1899, pp.94-95.
60
F.C. Danvers, Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on Portuguese
Records relating to the East Indies, New Delhi, 1991, p.2.
69
Voyage of Cabral:
Cabral, the new Captain – General of the trading expedition was instructed to
make an alliance with his enemies if they were hostile. Castaneda observes, “If the
Zamorin would not quietly consent or give sufficient loading to the ships, he would
make it cruel upon him. If the Zamorin consented to the establishment of a factory
and trade, the general was secretly to request him not to allow the Arabs of Mecca to
remain for trade in Calicut or any other harbour in his domains and promise that
Portuguese should supply all such commodities that used to be brought by the Arabs,
of better quality and cheaper price than theirs”61. The policy of the Portuguese
outlined in these words was surely leading to the rupture with Zamorin in the long
run. Cabral’s ship anchored in Calicut on 13th September 1500.62 At Calicut, he
faced a stiff competition from the Moors. Cabral was well received by the Zamorin
and an interview with him took place at Calicut when rich presents were exchanged,
and a treaty of friendship “as long as the sun and moon should ensure” was entered
into. He obtained permission from the Zamorin to establish a Portuguese factory for
the purchase of spices.
Once the permission was granted by the Zamorin, the
Portuguese, as lords of the sea, confiscated the goods of all those who navigated ships
without their permission63. The Moors who found Portuguese as a menace to their
trade refused to co-operate with them or to recognize their right to trade in spices.
They did everything to hamper Portuguese at Calicut which had an adverse effect on
61
Castaneda, The History of the Conquest of India, Quoted by P.K.S. Raja, Op.cit.,
pp. 79-80.
62
S.B. Battacherje, (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Events and Dates, New Delhi,
1987, p. 42.
63
TAS., Op.cit., Vol. I, (1988), P. 265.
70
the Portuguese attempt at trade64. As the Moors offered higher prices, the merchants
preferred them. Though the Portuguese complained to the Zamorin, it did not bring
about any substantial change in the situation. “Cosbequin, the head of all native
Moors, was always at variance with the Moors of the Red Sea”. He failed to obtain
cargo and eventually seized a ship which prompted the inhabitants of the city to burn
the new Portuguese factory to ashes and slaughtered nearly half of its residents65. As
the Moors did not get sufficient landing facilities for their ships, they became greatly
agitated and besieged the Portuguese factory at Calicut. Cabral, on 17th November
1498, seized a Moorish ship which was found loading in the harbour. He also seized
10 Moorish ships and after plundering them, he set them on fire. He also bombarded
the town for the next two full days. It is reported that Cabral’s expedition suffered
many causalities in the 16th century and he avenged this loss. “Putting to death 600
innocent boatmen who had nothing to do with the riot and two days bombarded them.
They killed 600 of the inhabitants and then destroyed 10 of the Zamorin vessels”.66
In which at a later date, the natives of different parts of India became involved as they
encouraged the Portuguese or Arab traders67.
Acts of deliberate brutality by Cabral, the Portuguese became the inevitable
enemy of the Zamorin and thereafter his policy towards the Portuguese was one of
firm opposition. Having found that further stay at Calicut was futile, Cabral and his
64
William Logan, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1951), pp. 304-305.
65
Britannica Junior Encyclopaedia, Chicago, 1980, p.31.
66
Teotonio, R. de Souza (ed.), Discoveries, Missionary Expansion and Asian
Cultures, New Delhi, 1994, p. 47.
67
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit, Vol. I, (1894), pp. 63-64.
71
men turned to Cochin, whose ruler was subordinate to the Zamorin68.
During
Cabral’s sojourn at Cochin, he got cordial invitation from the rulers of Quilon and
Cannanore promising help. The Portuguese promised to make the Raja of Cochin, at
a later date, the overlord of Malabar of these places to load his ships on favourable
terms. On his journey from Cochin to Cannanore Cabral’s party was intercepted by a
strong fleet of the Zamorin, but he managed to escape without any serious loss69.
Later, Cabral proceeded from Cannanore to Calicut, where he anchored before the
palace and conducted a preliminary negotiation that all the Moors should be expelled
from the territory of the Zamorins and all trade with their nation forbidden. The
Zamorin did not accept the demand of the Portuguese70. Cabral built factories in
Cannanore, Cochin and Calicut and appointed officers who were stationed in all these
places except Calicut71. On 16th January 1501, Cabral sailed back to Portugal. The
voyage of Cabral was important in several respects. The breach between the Zamorin
and the Portuguese had become complete because of his short sighted policy.
The nearness of Cochin enabled the Portuguese to avoid Calicut for
commercial purposes. The Raja of Cochin who wanted to shake off the imperial
position of the Zamorins, proved a willing tool in the hands of the Portuguese to fight
the Zamorin72. Cabral returned to his home country. Within his short stay, he created
68
K.M. Panikkar, Malabar and the Portuguese, Bombay, 1929, p. 64.
69
Selections from the Records of Fort St. George Papers relating to Cochin with
special reference to the Dutch Possession and Claims and to the British rights
arising there from Madras, 1915, p. 2.
70
Mount Stuart Elphinstone, The Rise of British Power in India, Delhi, 1986, p.11.
71
Commentaries of Great Affonso Albuquerque, Vol. II, Hakluyut Society, London,
p.XVII.
72
A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, Op.cit., (1995), pp. 23-24.
72
a new outlook to the colonial imperialism of the King of Portugal. He had realized
that the problem was either to send a large force and hold the seas or give up the right
to know about Indian trade.
The King of Portugal felt seriously of the shabby
treatment meted out to Cabral in the court of the Zamorin73. He was extremely
indignant and determined to exact further retribution.
Coming of Joaode Nova to India:
The long absence of Cabral made the King of Portugal to send out a small
fleet under Joao de Nova, the chief Captain of the ship. They left Lisbon in April
1501 under royal orders. The Portuguese had first wanted to chastise the perfidious
Zamorin and his Mappila allies74. But Joao de Nova avoided the expedition to
Calicut because he anticipated serious troubles from the Moors and the Zamorin of
Calicut. So they sailed to Anjediva where the Captain was met by the emissaries of
the Kolattiri Raja of Cannanore75. The ruler promised him to provide all assistance
for their trade. Later he proceeded straightway to Cochin76. With the help of the ruler
of Cochin and Cannanore, Nova loaded his ships and returned to Europe.
The
meeting between the Portuguese trader Nova and the ruler of Cochin created an
unexpected situation. The Zamorin of Calicut wanted to encourage active foreign
trade in his kingdom too. In 1502 the entrenchment of the Portuguese, led to the rise
73
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1929), p. 64.
74
T. White House, Some Historical Notices of Cochin the Malabar Coast,
Kottayam,1859, pp. 4-6.
75
A. Sreedhara Menon (ed.), Gazetteer of India-Kerala, Cannanore, Trivandrum,
1972, pp.80-82.
76
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1960), p.46.
73
of Cochin from a position secondary to that of Cochin on the Malabar Coast, if not
superior, in trade and maritime activity.77
The disquieting news of the hostility between the Zamorin and the Arab
traders at Calicut brought by Cabral and Nova made the Portuguese King indignant.
The King sent a fleet of 15 ships to India under the command of Vasco-da-Gama. On
the advice of the King of Portugal, Gama dispatched a larger and better equipped
expedition that is called the “Second expedition in October 1502, considered as
“Second Expedition of Gama”78 to Malabar. “The role of Gama now was not that of
a messenger as it had been in his first voyage but of an avenger”79. Gama had three
important goals, first to punish the Zamorin, then to establish Portuguese authority
over the Arabian Sea, and thirdly, to propagate Roman Catholicism80. Gama arrived
safely at Anjediva near Mozambique (Goa) in July and visited Melinde, or Baticala
and Cannanore. It seems that the ruler of Melinde and Ibnu Majeed were friends.
Ibnu Majeed was a navigator and a marine scientist. As an Arab Majeed had traveled
widely and had sound knowledge about the Malabar Coast. Gama befriended him
and learned many things for his journey to Calicut. Some of the instrument was taken
by Gama from Majeed by poisoning him. Then Gama reached Calicut.81 On his way
to Cannanore, the Arab vessels were captured at Calicut coming from Mekkah to
77
Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Maritime India in the Seventeenth Century, New Delhi,
1994, p. 25.
78
P.N. Chopra, Op.cit., Vol. II, (1979), pp 350-351.
79
A. Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., (1972), pp.80-82.
80
K.V. Krishna Ayyar, Op.cit, (1938), p.162.
81
P.M.K. Faizee, Kadalsimham (Mal.), Calicut 2005, pp. 70, 78 to 83.
74
Mount, under the orders of the Chief Captain Gama himself82. Gama was cordially
received by the Kolattiri at the latter’s court. Then he proceeded from Cannanore to
Calicut. Later, he entered into an alliance with the Raja of Cochin83.
Conflict between Gama and the Zamorin:
The Zamorin was ignorant of the mission of Gama. The Zamorin sent him a
message of peace and good will, though he had gone away without paying the usual
customs duties. Gama received the message of the Zamorin when he was in Cochin
entreating him to go to Calicut and sort out the problems amicably84. The Portuguese
Captain replied by hanging the messenger. Coming to Calicut, he demanded the
Zamorin to expel the Moors and Mappila from his dominions as a pre -condition for
peace.
When this impossible and arrogant demand was rejected, Gama acted
according to the maxim of collective retribution. “The messengers tortured the
ambassadors and executed them and his deeds were a disgrace to the name of
humanity”85. The city was bombarded. Again, he began to loot and burn the 24 ships
loaded with rice coming from Mangalore. He seized their crew and cutting their nose,
ears and hands and also knocked their teeth, tied their feet together and put them all
on board a smaller vessel86. The bombardment of the city was continued for 3 days.
Then Gama sailed to Cochin where he traded for shiploads of riches87.
82
Commentaries of Great Alphonso Albuquerque, Vol. II, Hakluyt Society,
pp.XX-XXI.
83
John Annals of the Honourable East India Company, Vol. I, London, 1810, p.12.
84
Francis Day, Op.cit., (1893), p.85.
85
Ibid., p.86.
86
K.V. Krishna Ayyar, Op.cit., (1938), p.183.
87
R.S. Whiteway, The Rise of Portuguese Power in India, London, 1899, p.173.
75
The Raja of Cochin cordially welcomed Gama. A treaty was signed between
the Raja of Cochin and the Portuguese and “the Raja made only one stipulation that
no cows should be slaughtered in his dominion”88.
The Cochin Raja granted
permission to the Portuguese to build a factory at Cochin89. In course of time, the
Zamorin got alarmed at the growing friendship between the Raja of Cochin and the
Portuguese. He wanted to make preparation to realize his cherished ambition of the
expulsion of the Portuguese from Cochin. At first, the Zamorin tried diplomatically
by sending a message to the Cochin Raja, urging the latter to declare categorically
whether he preferred the friendship of a foreign power to that of Calicut. He was also
called upon to expel all the Portuguese from his kingdom. The Raja, who had been
dreaming of a glorious future for his kingdom under Portuguese patronage, turned
down the appeals of the Zamorin. Having failed in diplomacy, the Zamorin decided
to attack Cochin. Gama, who did not want to risk his cargo by defending his ally90,
left Cochin turning a deaf ear to the entreaties of the Raja. Thus the Raja was left
alone to face the storm he had created for the sake of his faithless ally. In 1503 Gama
returned to Lisbon91.
Hostilities between the Zamorin and the Raja of Cochin:
Gama’s departure was the signal for the outbreak of hostilities between the
Zamorin and the Raja of Cochin92. The two countries were frequently engaged in
88
P.K.S. Raja, Op.cit., (1966), p.87.
89
Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire, New Delhi, 1982, p.116.
90
P.K.S. Raja, Op.cit., (1966), pp.87-88.
91
Genevieve Bouchanan, Regent of the Sea, Delhi, 1988, pp.63-64.
92
Sir William Hunter, History of British India, Vol. I, London, 1899, pp.109-110.
76
wars to establish their supremacy in their respective areas93. Historians attribute
several factors to the frequent struggle between the two powers. The cardinal point of
Malabar politics for a long time had been the rivalry between the rulers of Calicut
and Cochin. In this critical position, both the Portuguese and the Dutch took sides
with either of the rulers94. Moreover, the ambition of the Cochin Raja was to become
the chief potentate of Malabar with the help of the Portuguese, which made him turn
down the diplomatic overtures of Calicut95. The Zamorin of Calicut decided to teach
a lesson for the treacherous policy of Raja of Cochin with the Portuguese. In the
meantime, the Zamorin played a diplomatic role to get the support of his nobles and
the Muslims of this territory. Before beginning an expedition, the Zamorin called a
council of his nobles and pointed out that Calicut had owed its prosperity and
affluence to the mercantile enterprise of the Mappilas. The arrival of the Portuguese
and their selling method of articles changed the relation between the Portuguese and
the Zamorin in the Malabar region. The Portuguese became the enemies of the
Zamorin, and the Cochin Raja also followed a hostile policy and had refused to
recognize the suzerainty of Calicut, and to continue a cordial relationship with them.
So the Zamorin wanted to punish the Cochin Raja and informed his policy before the
council of nobles. He told them that an expedition against Cochin was inevitable to
punish its ruler.96
93
C. Achyuta Menon, The Cochin State Manual, Cochin, 1911, pp. 64-66.
94
K.P. Padmanabha Menon, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1982), p.483.
95
P.N. Chopra, Op.cit., (1979), p.5.
96
K.P. Padmanabha Menon, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1982), P. 486.
77
After the discussion of the council of Nobles and the Zamorin, they had the
plan to attack Cochin, both through land and sea. The Zamorin declared war against
Ponnani and his army confronted it while the fleet managed by the Mappilas, set sail
for Cochin for a blockade.97 On 1st March 1503 the army of the Zamorin arrived at
Edappalli. His ships entered the backwaters of Cochin. Under the captainship of
Lorenzumorene the Portuguese defended the fort at Edappalli with the forces of
Cochin. But their attempts were in vain due to the heavy pressure of the army of the
Zamorin and the Portuguese forced to withdraw their forces. The Cochin army
suffered heavy loss of men and material, three princes being killed in the conflict.
The Cochin Raja and his forces suffered heavily due to the strong attack of the
mighty forces of the Zamorin. The Cochin Raja took refuge in the ‘Sańkētam’ of the
Elamkunnapuzha temple. However, with the onset of the monsoon, the Zamorin
suspended his military operations for a period of three months and withdrew to
Cranganore98. In course of time, the Portugal King Dommanuel determined to send a
large fleet under the leadership of Albuquerque brothers, Francisco and Affonso. The
aim of the fleet was to build a fortress at Cochin for the protection of the agency and
merchandise there99. The brothers came to Quilon, and found that the King had gone
into the interior of the country for a war, which he was waging with the King of
Narasiya100. Varthema also has recorded the wars of the King and according to him
the “King of this city was the friend of the King of Portugal when he was at war with
97
K. V. Krishna Ayyar, Op.cit., (1938), p. 170
98
A. Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., (1972), p.181.
99
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., (1991), p.3.
100
The Commentaries of the great Affonso Albuquerque, Vol. I, p.9, quoted in
T.K.Velu Pillai, Travancore State Manual, Vol. II, p.136.
78
others”101. The fleet arrived at Cochin before the Zamorin could resume his campaign
after monsoon.
Francisco reached first Cochin and drove towards the Zamorin’s forces. It was
a great relief for the Raja of Cochin. The Raja returned to his ancestral palace with
his Portuguese allies. For their better security, the Raja of Cochin allowed them to
build a fortress under his own direct supervision. With the erection of the Cochin
fort, the Raja virtually lost his freedom and became a puppet in the hands of the
Portuguese102.
This was followed by the truce between the Zamorin and the
Portuguese arranged at the initiative of Francisco De Albuquerque. After some days,
the fleet of Affonso arrived at Cochin and the remaining troops of the Zamorin were
driven back from Cochin. They concluded a peace treaty by which the ruler of
Calicut agreed to pay 4000 cq.t of pepper annually to the Portuguese103. For the
Zamorin the war with the Cochin Raja ceased to be a local one of subduing a
rebellious vassal, but it developed into a war against European Imperialism104. The
war enhanced the prestige of the Raja of Cochin and his sovereignty was exercised
throughout his territory. The triumph of the Raja of Cochin with the support of the
Portuguese to increase their bargaining power in every part of Malabar by making
the local barons serve their trade interests. The arrival of Albuquerque and his policy
paved the way for more involvement of the Portuguese in trade and occupation105.
101
John Winter Jonese (Tr.), The Travels of Ludovico De Varthema, London, 1863,
p.184.
102
J.John Ovington, India in the 17th Century, Vol. I, New Delhi, 1984, pp.150-151.
103
P.N. Chopra, Op.cit., Vol. II, (1979), pp. 355-360.
104
K.V. Krishna Ayyar, Op.cit., (1938), p.187.
105
H.K. Kaul, (ed.), A Cultural History of India, New Delhi, 1988, p.377.
79
After the arrival of Affonso Albuquerque, the Zamorin of Calicut changed the state of
affairs in India into a “network consistently established through the Indian Ocean and
politically structured”106. The alarming and rising power of the Raja of Cochin
earned the jealousy of the Zamorin of Calicut who prepared for another war against
the allied powers of the Portuguese and Cochin107. Before declaring war against
Cochin, the Zamorin imposed economic blockades on Cochin.
The Zamorin
instructed the Muslim traders of Cochin not to import rice from the Eastern Coast to
Cochin. The Zamorin began his large scale military operations against Cochin in
March 1504. The aim of the expedition was to capture the newly constructed fort.
Drate Pachoco, the Portuguese Captain showed rare skill and ability in meeting the
crisis. In course of time, the local Muslims were terrorized into abject obedience.
During the initial stages of the expedition, the Zamorin arrested Muhammad
Marakkār, the leader of the Muslim traders, by which the Muslim traders were
compelled to blockade the rice import108.
The Calicut forces advanced through Edappalli to Kumbalam, from where
they decided to cross over the river Palluruti, south east of Cochin. The stream,
however, was too narrow for the Moorish ships to be deployed. Pacheo and the
Cochin Raja could freely deliver their attacks on the advancing enemy or rush to the
support of their own men wherever they seemed to give way to the movement of the
enemy’s army along the inner lines. The Zamorin made four determined attempts to
cross over to Cochin, every one was more fierce than the preceding one. All of them
106
K.S. Mathew (ed.), Op.cit., (1997), p.142.
107
Rev. G. U.Pope, A Text Book of Indian History, New Delhi, 1979, p.248.
108
R.S. Whiteway, Op.cit., (1899), p.98.
80
were successfully stalled and the Zamorin was forced to retreat from Cochin on 3rd
July 1504109. In his victory, Pacheo and his one hundred comrades had earned an
eternal fame for their country and countrymen by the gallant protection of Cochin
against the mighty fifty thousand strong army men of the Zamorin110. As Pacheo’s
men rebelled, an additional fleet of Portuguese arrived at Cochin under Lopo Soares
in 1504. His fleet had 14 caravels. They proclaimed a blockade against the forces of
Zamorin at Cochin111. With Pacheo’s assistance on April 16, 1504 he attacked and
burnt Cranganore, at Cherruvai forty miles north of Cochin, the base of Zamorin’s
operations against Cochin.
Historically, this attack was called the Battle of
Cherruvai112. The Raja of Cranganore shook off his allegiance to Calicut and
accepted Portuguese protection. It is said that during this war the Zamorin lost an
army, together with a considerable number of ships. The Portuguese thus obtained a
decisive victory113. According to O.K. Nambiar, the Zamorin of Calicut had lost
19,000 men and materials along with many ships114. With the capture of Cranganore,
the Portuguese won the first round of their designs in Malabar. Then peace was
obtained between the Portuguese and the Zamorin in 1504. But Cochin Raja’s
ambition to become a leading ruler of Kerala was exploited by the Portuguese who
found in him a willing ally and a convenient tool115.
109
O.K. Nambiar, The Kunjalis, Admirals of Calicut, Bombay, 1963, p.45.
110
Surendaranath Sen, Op.cit., (1993), p.1.
111
Robert Sewell, Op.cit., (1982), p.92.
112
Francis Day, Op.cit., (1893), p.92.
113
L.A. Krishna Iyer, Social History of Kerala, Vol. I, Madras, 1968, p.7.
114
O.K. Nambiar, Op.cit., (1963), p.45.
115
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1960), pp.55-60.
81
The failure of the Zamorin emboldened the Portuguese to insist on the
merchants, even in the kingdoms of friendly Cochin and Cannanore getting
Portuguese permits, to send their boats across the sea. Each ship, however small it
might be, was provided with a pass, for which the Portuguese fixed a certain fee. The
system of pass, introduced by the Portuguese impressed the inhabitants that the
system was to their advantage and thus induced them to submit to it116.
The
imposition of Portuguese passes paralyzed the trading activities of the Kerala Coast.
This was the immediate effect of the Portuguese victory. The Portuguese could
achieve this by taking advantage of the dissensions that prevailed among the native
rulers, by their astute diplomacy and military (naval) power. The petty-minded Indian
native powers could not there realize the future consequences. Their aired ego to
become supreme over the other led to the rule mission of them to the foreign power.
Role of Portuguese Viceroys:
The Zamorin’s invasion opened the eyes of the King of Portugal to the
advantage of a permanent fleet at Cochin. The places like Anjedeva, Cannanore and
Cochin were selected to build fortresses.117 For the sake of their administration, the
rulers of Portugal nominated their own representatives under the name of Viceroys.
In the year 1505, Dom Francisco-de-Almeida was appointed the first Viceroy of the
Portuguese possessions in the east118. He was sent from Portugal to India in order to
protect the Portuguese trade in the Malabar Coast119. Almeida was a nobleman of
116
Sheik Zain-ud-din, Op.cit., (1942), p.56.
117
Jose Nicolauda Fonseca – An Historical and Archaelogical sketch of city of Goa,
New Delhi, 1986, p. 139.
118
Rev. G.U. Pope, Op.cit., (1979), p.249.
119
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Advanced History of India, New Delhi, 1986, p.437.
82
the illustrious rank. On his arrival in India, he earned the title Viceroy and certain
tasks were assigned to him to make the occupation of Portuguese a permanent one in
Malabar, and secure the East African Coast and break the Muslim power over the
seas120. The nobleman came with a larger fleet and 1500 soldiers121.
Almeida’s appointment was a turning point in the relations between India and
the Portuguese. “When Cabral returned to Lisbon, the Portuguese King realized that
the problem was either to send a large force and hold the seas or to give up dreams of
the Indian trades.
This attempt was a partial success.
But in the meantime,
Portuguese interests in India grew. The policy so far followed was to send out a fleet
every year in the hope that it would be able to destroy Indian shipping and enable the
Portuguese to secure monopoly of the Indian trade. This was found impossible122.
Moreover, seasonal winds occasionally prevented navigation, endangering the safety
of the isolated Portuguese factories.
As a result, the king realized that it was
necessary to appoint a permanent representative in India, armed with authority to
initiate a stable and continuous policy and to build more fortresses in strategic places
in order to strengthen their position in India for the growth of commerce.
Accordingly, Dom Francisco Almeida sailed from Lisbon in March 1505, invested
with full power to wage wars and conclude treaties and regularize the commerce. He
reached Malabar in 1505 and followed a hostile policy towards the Zamorin and
Muslim traders.
Almeida supported the ruler of Cochin against the Zamorin of
120
Sir William Hunter, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1899), pp. 120-121.
121
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Op.cit., (1986), p.437.
122
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1960), p.61.
83
Calicut.
The control of sea trade now instituted became the chief source of
Portuguese wealth in the east.123
Almeida landed in the island of Anjedeva and erected a fort there. Then he
proceeded to the Malabar Coast where he met the ruler of Cannanore on 24th
October 1505 and obtained permission to build a port124. From Cannanore, Almeida
continued his journey to Cochin. At Cochin, he came to know that the Raja of
Cochin who was a close friend of the Portuguese had retired through the operation of
an old family custom by which the head of the royal family always retired as
Perumpadappu Muppu, while the Ilamura (first prince) ruled the country. After
the death of Perumpadappu Muppu, Unni Rama Koyil II, the generous patron of the
Portuguese was promoted to the Stanam. The second prince Munammura (‘the
third time’) was in support of the Zamorin. Therefore, Almeida managed to secure
the installation of the third prince Nalummura (‘the fourth line’) who was more
favourable to the Portuguese125. Almeida utilized the golden opportunity to secure
from the new Raja the right to build a new and strong fortress at Cochin.
The strength of the Portuguese position on the Kerala Coast alarmed the
Zamorin. Greatly agitated at the increase of Portuguese power, he made preparations
for another attempt to drive out the Portuguese from the Malabar Coast.
The
Portuguese knew everything that was being done by the Zamorin. Almeida gathered
123
Harmoup Lally, The New Encyclopaedia Britannica in 30 Volumes, Vol. XIV,
Chicago, 1974, p. 869.
124
C.A. Innes & Evans (ed.), Op.cit., (1997), p.46.
125
A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, Op.cit., (1995), p.30.
84
information through Ludovico de Varthema an Italian spy126. The Zamorin prepared
and put a fleet of 200 vessels manned by the Turks and Arabs in action against the
Portuguese. In the month of March 1506 a Portuguese fleet destroyed with immense
loss of life, a large flotilla of small boats belonging to the Zamorin of Calicut. In
1507, an outrage was committed by the Portuguese to conduct a siege of their factory
at Cannanore. At the end of 1507, Almeida and Dacunha joined forces and again
attacked Calicut, with the same measure of success.127 In course of time, the strength
of the forces of the Zamorin was conveyed by Varthema to the Portuguese camp. He
conveyed the news that a large naval force was equipped at Calicut, consisting of 200
small vessels, carrying guns cast by the Italians, meant as a convoy for a cargo fleet
going to Egypt128. In 1508, the Egyptian fleet of twelve ships and one thousand five
hundred men under Mir Hussain attacked the Portuguese. Almeida sent his son
Laurenco Almeida to attack the Calicut fleet on its way to Cannanore. The combined
fleet of the Zamorin and the Egyptians attacked the forces of Portuguese under
Laurenco Almeida129 and in a stiff fight, the Portuguese fleet got dispersed and its
commander was killed130. The Egyptian victory was so decisive that the Portuguese
lost command of the sea for sometime. It was a severe blow to the Portuguese naval
prestige.
126
R.S. Whiteway, Op.cit., (1899), p.108.
127
Robert Sewell, Op.cit., (1982), p. 119.
128
R.C. Temple (ed.), The Itinerary of Ludovicodi Varthema of Selonga from 1502 1508, London, 1928, p.274.
129
Teotonio Rde Souza, Indo – Portuguese History, New Delhi, 1985, p. 3.
130
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., (1991), pp.229-241.
85
On receipt of this disastrous news, the Viceroy swore revenge and he took
over the command of the fleet. He was very much worried and infuriated by the death
of his son131. He prepared a plan and started towards the north with a new Armada
which consisted of eighteen ships and one thousand and two hundred men.
Meanwhile, the combined forces of the Zamorin and the Egyptians failed to keep
watch on the activities of the Portuguese. Moreover, there arose a quarrel between
Egyptian Amir Hussain and the Malik – Ayas of the Zamorin. In course of time, the
commanders of Indian and Egyptian navy did not show any interest to repair the
damaged vessels and improve arms and ammunitions. The forces of Almeida reached
Diu on 2nd February 1509 and a long and stubborn battle was fought on 3rd February
to decide and to who should have the command of the Indian waters, Egypt or
Portugal. On 5th February 1509, the Viceroy attacked the Egyptian fleet courageously
and in the end, the Indo-Egyptian forces were routed132.
After an indecisive
engagement, the Egyptian fled, leaving the Portuguese to be the masters of the
Arabian Sea. The Portuguese victory of Diu left them free to pursue any oceanic
policy they desired and laid firm foundation of the European mastery of the Eastern
waters which continued for over 400 years133.
The Zamorin learnt a better lesson from the war and his failure in spite of the
fact that the Indo- Egyptian forces led him to change his tactics. He realized that
though his sea men were bolder and impetuous, their attainments were no substitute
for the superior gunnery and disciplined joint action of the enemy. He sought to
131
R.S.Whiteway, Op.cit., (1899), p.118.
132
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., (1991), pp.229-41.
133
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1971), p.43.
86
overcome this handicap by avoiding a pitched battle. In course of time, Almeida the
Portuguese Viceroy left Calicut in 1509, and Affonso de Albuquerque under the title
of Governor assumed charge as his successor on Sunday the 5th November 1509134.
He wanted to complete the work of his predecessor during his tenure. Albuquerque
made a definite attempt to consolidate the Portuguese power in the East. As a wise
statesman, he clearly realized the danger involved in the policy of Almeida to hinge
on the strength of the fleet which was immobilized and also put out of action. He
knew that the rainy season was not suitable for navigation because of the storms. The
Viceroy understood that unless they made themselves masters of the strategic points,
their supremacy would slip away from the eastern trade. He calculated that a small
nation like Portugal could maintain its hold over India only by winning the sympathy
of the indigenous population.
The officials insisted on an immediate attack on
Calicut. So he was engaged in one of his earliest acts to lay siege to Zamorin’s palace
at Calicut in January 1510. The task was entrusted to a new fleet that had just arrived
under Marshal Cutinho, with specific instructions to destroy the power of Calicut.
The Portuguese soldiers attacked and captured the palace and after plundering, set it
ablaze and its town. In the fierce attack of the forces of Zamorin that followed there
after, the native soldiers drove the Portuguese back to their ships135. In the course of
the attack, Albuquerque was seriously wounded during the retreat. His flag bearer
was killed and the Marshal Cutinho died in fighting.
134
Frederick Charles Danvers, The Portuguese in India being a History of the Rise
and Decline of Their Eastern Empire, Vol. I, London, 1894, p.182.
135
Morse Stephens, Rulers of India – Albuquerque, Oxford, 1897, pp. 30-31.
87
Albuquerque sailed for Cochin and on the way he invaded Ponnani and killed
about seventy Muslims136. The defeated Portuguese felt that Albuquerque should
approach Krishnadeva Raya, the Hindu ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire for help
against the Zamorin137. His main aim was to receive the assistance of Krishnadeva
Raya against the Zamorin of Calicut138. The Vijayanagar ruler was not in a position
to oblige the Portuguese though Krishnadeva Raya wished to maintain friendship with
the Portuguese139. It was becoming clearer day by day to Albuquerque that the fight
against Calicut was not in the interests of Portugal, but would help the interests of the
Rajas of Cochin and Cannanore.
In the mean time, the Portuguese Governor
captured Goa and erected a fort there140. On hearing this, the Zamorin sent his
ambassadors to Goa, extending friendship and offering a site within his kingdom for
the construction of a fortress. In course of time, the Portuguese began to follow a
policy of confrontation instead of a friendly approach. Albuquerque intrigued against
the reigning Zamorin and established a secret agreement with the heir apparent to
poison the Zamorin141. Then they agreed to sign a treaty on 24th December 1513.
Accordingly, the Portuguese were free to import all kinds of merchandise to Calicut
and were allowed to purchase spices and drugs at concessional prices. Moreover,
136
Sheikh Zain-ud-din, Op.cit., (1833), p.58.
137
M.H.Ram Sharma, The History of Vijayanagar Empire: Beginnings and
Expansion 1308-1569, Bombay, 1978, p.115.
138
T.V. Mahalingam, Administration and Social Life Under Vijayanagar Empire,
Part I, Administration, Madras, 1969, p.181.
139
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Op.cit., (1986), p. 421.
140
Mahammad Habibe, Khabiq Ahamad Nizami (ed.), A Comprehensive History of
India (1206-1526), Vol. V, New Delhi, p.1074.
141
Elaine Sanueau, Indian Adventure, The Amazing Career of Alfonso Albuquerque,
London, 1936, p.227.
88
they were allowed to build a fort in Calicut on a site of their own choice142. Thus, the
treaty made the Muslim merchants to take passes from the Portuguese captains for
their navigation on the high seas143.
Under the provisions of this treaty, the
Portuguese promised to help the Zamorin in his wars against Cochin and Cranganore.
The treaty of 1513 was a great triumph of Portuguese diplomacy144. The Zamorin of
Calicut, says a Muhammadan historian, “rolled up the carpet of destruction and
pursued the path of friendship with foreigners”145. As has already been seen, the
Portuguese relations with Calicut worsened in 1500 and became somewhat friendly
only by 1513, when a factory was established there146. The treaty of 1513 was short
lived and was soon broken with the death of the Zamorin. When the latter made the
new Zamorin a friendly visit to their fort, they did not honour the passes they had
given to his merchants.
Moreover, they instigated the Cochin Raja to raid his
dominions. The intrigue of Cochin Raja was an important factor that prevented the
good relations between the Zamorin and the Portuguese. The Mappilas in turn,
began their guerilla warfare. Open clashes between the Portuguese and the Mappilas
became a daily occurrence in the streets of Calicut. Thus the Zamorin and the
Portuguese gradually drifted into open war147.
142
Edward Thornton, A Gazetteer of the East India Company, Delhi, 1984, p.176.
143
N.H. Moreland, From Akbar to Aurangazeb, A Study in Indian Economic History,
London, 1923, p.9.
144
William Logan, Op.cit., Vol. I, (1951), pp.365-366.
145
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1971), p.81.
146
K.S. Mathew, Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century, New Delhi,
1983, p.145.
147
K.V. Krishna Ayyar, Op.cit., (1938), pp.192-93.
89
As long as Albuquerque lived, everything went off well. But, after his death
in 1515, the Portuguese followed the old hostility under Lopsoraz the new Viceroy.
He was a determined opponent to the policy of Albuquerque. He brought back all the
Portuguese officials whom Albuquerque had expelled for gross corruption, disloyalty
or lack of political ability. His successor was, Diogo Loper De Sequiera during his
period, the Raja of Cochin created a rupture by invading certain territories belonging
to the Zamorin’s feudatories. In the war against Calicut Sequiera with the help of
Cochin forces invaded Cherruvai in 1521148. But the campaign went fully in favour
of the Zamorin. Though in the military sense, the war went against Cochin, the Raja
succeeded in embroiling Calicut with the Portuguese149. At the end of the war,
Zamorin’s attitude towards the Portuguese underwent a change. Zamorin lost all faith
in the professions of friendship of the Portuguese.
The new Governor Duarte De Menezes assumed office in 1522150. During his
tenure there were open clashes between the Portuguese and the Mappilas but not of
very serious consequences. On the Coast the Mappilas were industrious and skilful
in trade and craft.151 Thought for some time they could not be supreme, they
recovered fully exploited the unfriendly situation of the Zamorin with the Portuguese
to their advantage. The Arabs and the Muslim merchants of Calicut maintained a
continuous commercial intercourse with the Red Sea. However, they neglected the
Portuguese relations. The Mappilas captured 10 Portuguese vessels and raided the
148
A. Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., (1962), pp.109-10.
149
K.M. Panikkar, Op.cit., (1971), pp.90-91.
150
F.C. Danvers, Op.cit., (1894), p. 2.
151
Malabar Collectorate Records, Serial No. 24562, Vol. 4033-1, p.29.
90
Cochin port and attacked Cranganore under the leadership of KuttiAli of Tanur152. It
was at this time that the Portugal King realized the need of a strong man to restore
order in India.
In 1524, Vasco-da-Gama reached Goa as the Viceroy of the
Portuguese possessions, invested with full power and authority of that distinguished
office153. He issued a proclamation at Goa, prohibiting private trade and ordered the
confiscation of all ships that navigated the seas without his permission. Thereafter
reaching Cochin, he saw the ships of Calicut sailing everywhere without any
acknowledgement of Portuguese authority. He sent out several expeditions against
the Muslim seamen of Malabar and took the wealthy merchant’s fleet at Kappad
under the ablest Portuguese seaman Martin Affonso D Soura154. Soura defeated the
older and younger KuttiAlis155. Gama lived only three months and died on 24th
December 1524 in Cochin and was buried in the present St. Francis Church in that
town. Vasco-da-Gama was succeeded by Henrique de Menezes (1524-1527). One of
his first acts was to order the execution of Balia Hassan and this strained the relations
of the Portuguese with the Kolattiri. During his term of office, there was a grim
struggle between the Portuguese and the Zamorins for the command of the sea. The
Kunjali Marakkars, the Admirals of the Zamorin’s fleet, came to limelight during
this fight.
152
Kutti Ali was a wealthy Muhammedan of Tanur and entered into partnership with
the Portuguese. The trade policy of Portuguese highly opposed the policy of
natives. So Kutti Ali made alliance with other victims of Portuguese injustice
and rebelled against their activities. R.S. Whiteway, Op.cit., p.196.
153
Innes & Evans, Op.cit., (1997), p.48.
154
R.S. Whiteway, Op.cit., (1899), p.196.
155
Faria Y.Souza, Portuguese Asia, Vol. I, (Tra-cap, Stevens), London, 1965,
pp.281-282.
91
Kunjali Marakkars:
Kunjalis were originally Cochin Mappilas. In due course, the Cochin Raja
had cordial relations with the Portuguese, who moved to the Mappila centre of
Ponnani. After that they joined the service of the Zamorin.156 The Kunjalis who
were admirals of the Zamorin were the leaders of this resistance. The word Kunjalis
corresponds to ‘Well Beloved’. According to tradition, the Kunjalis were marine
merchants. They were also called Marakkars, which means navigators of ships.157
Originally marine merchants of Cochin, they left for Ponnani in the Zamorin’s
dominion when the Portuguese came to Cochin and got favours from the Raja. The
Zamorin took them into his service and eventually they became the Admirals of the
Calicut fleet. The Kunjalis chose the very best men to the navy. Kutti Ali was one
among them. Kutti Ali, for the sake of Zamorin, attacked the Portuguese ships, and
made heavy loss to them.
He followed two techniques of fighting against the
Portuguese. He used eight fast moving armed boats to attack the heavy Portuguese
vessels and guerilla warfare adjourning hit and run tactics. In order to curb the
activities of KuttiAli, Lopo vaz de Sampayo (1526-1529), the Governor of
Portuguese, attacked KuttiAli’s forces and captured him as a prisoner. Kunjali
Marakkars then attacked the Portuguese possessions in Ceylon and the East Coast.
Then came the new Viceroy Nuno da Curha. He erected a fort at Chaliyam and
garrisoned it with Portuguese troops. The Chaliyam fort was very much helpful to the
Portuguese and from there they attacked the Zamorin. In the Kunjali Marakkar’s
family, after the death of KuttiAli, Kunjali II took his place, and attacked the
156
Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, Madras, 1976, pp. 68-69.
157
Krishna Chaitanya , Op.cit., (1994), p. 75.
92
Portuguese ships from all directions. He made unholy alliance with the Portuguese
and in January 1540 turned against his former allies, the Kunjalis.158
In 1570 the Zamorin declared war against the Portuguese and laid siege one of
their important ports name called the port of Chaliyam. The ruler of Calicut gained
the assistance of Adilkhan of Bijapur and Nizam Shah of the Ahamadnagar and the
Parappanad Raja. Meanwhile, the second Kunjali died and was succeeded by the
third Kunjali Marakkar Pathu Marakkar Kunjali. He was a great hero. While the
Zamorin blockaded Chaliyam by land – PuthuMarakkar Kunjali cut it off by sea.
Lastly the Portuguese surrendered the port of Chaliyam. The Zamorin very much
impressed the courage, strength of the Marakkar. Due to his tedious work of the
Marakkar at Chaliyam, he gave him permission to construct Puthuppattanam.159
The town of Kodungallur or Cranganore is situated near the sea on the right
bank of the Periyar River. The river was used for the purpose of smuggling pepper.
The Raja of Cochin was anxious to throw the assistance of the Portuguese in the
event of the success of the Portuguese would have a factory there. The Zamorin
induced to make another attempt to evacuate the Portuguese, and marched a large
army in 1534 to Kodungallur and Vaippin, where he was joined by the chief of
Edappalli with his men. The Portuguese got the assistance of the King of Cochin
against the Zamorin with 20,000 Nayars, and succeeded in defending the passes. At
the close of the year, reinforcements arrived from Lisbon and Goa, whereupon the
Zamorin retired, and the Portuguese marched to Edappalli, plundered and burnt the
158
159
Bhatt. S.C. Gopal K Bhargava, (ed.), Land and People of Indian States Union
Territories in 35 Volumes, Vol. 14, New Delhi, 2005, p. 25.
I.K.K. Menon, Kunhali Marakkar, Calicut, 1998, pp. 19-20.
93
town. In that manner, the Portuguese strongly established their hold in Kodungallur
and to prevent the interference of the Zamorin as well as the smuggling of pepper,
they built a tower in 1535.160 G. De Megalhaes Teixeiro Pinto, Chief Judge of Goa,
ascribes the failure of the Portuguese to the following five factors.
The great extent of the line of forts which annually drained a large amount of
money.
The Portuguese monopoly in the field of commerce largely affected the native
commerce.
Religious fanaticism.
The selection of Goa as the capital due to the bad policy of Albuquerque.
The bad and corrupt administrative system paved the way for slavery and
immoral trade.161
Owing to the advent of the Dutch and the British, a new challenge was faced
by the Portuguese. The Dutch and the British ambition were to break the cartoz
system in the Indian Ocean. Owing to the liberal trade policy of the North European
powers the Portuguese lost its economic prosperity.162
The foregone study tells that the landing of Vasco-da-Gama at Kappad near
Calicut was an epoch-making event that changed the course of the history of the
Asian sub-Continent and Europe. Europe, until then a trading partner in the Malabar
Coast, was very much thrown open to the wealth of the waters. The Portuguese, the
first to enter in this treasure hunt, were very ambitious and wanted to have the total
160
V.T. Induchudan, The Golden Tower, Trichur, 1971, pp. 7.
161
D. Pant, Commercial Policy of the Moguls, Delhi, 1978, pp. 120-121.
162
Marget Frenz, From Contact to Conquest Transition to British rule in Malabar
1790-1805, New Delhi, 2003, p. 69.
94
monopoly of trade with Calicut, by evicting the traditional traders, the Arabs and the
Egyptians. In their firing zeal and avariciousness, they forced the friendly Zamorin to
be unfriendly. In addition, they took sides with the Raja of Cochin, when they found
the Zamorin reluctant to grant whatever they demanded. This led to battles, loss of
lives, destruction of property and the friendly alliance.
Had the Portuguese been diplomats, they would not have suffered reversals
and eviction by the successor European powers. Their use of power, weapons, and
corrupt methods was not in their favour. Added to this was the ambitious King of
Portugal, who, this scholar thinks was to amass the whole treasure of the East at one
stroke. Perhaps he was not given to understand the reality or he was misinformed by
his subordinates. While reading the records one can understand that he was not
diplomatic but militant. The policy at home reflects through their officers in the
Malabar Coast. Even for minor matters, they lost their patience, got wild and
attacked and destroyed the enemy camps, burnt the cities and wrought heavy loss. By
destroying the native ruler, they destroyed themselves and gave way to other
European powers to enter Calicut. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch who
were able to overcome the Portuguese influence and the kingdom witnessed a span of
the Dutch impact.