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Grammar Lessons
Junior/ Senior Elective
2014-2015
Chapter 4
PARTS OF SPEECH
Lesson 4.1 Nouns
• Nouns—words that name persons, places, things, or ideas
• Abstract nouns—name ideas and things you cannot touch
• Concrete nouns—name things you can touch, taste, see, hear, or
smell.
• Proper nouns—name particular persons, places, things, or ideas
and need capitalization.
• Common nouns—name general people, places, and things and
don’t need capitalization.
• Collective nouns—name a group of people, animals, or things.
• Compound nouns—consist of two or more words.
– Run together: cookbook
– Hyphenated: ninety-one
– Two separate words: House of Representatives
Lesson 4.2 Pronouns
• Pronouns—words that take the place of a noun
• Antecedent—the word or group of words a pronoun
replaces
• Types of Pronouns:
– Personal: refer to specific people or animals
– Indefinite: express and amount or refer to a unspecified
person or thing
– Demonstrative: point to specific people or things
– Interrogative: begin a question
– Reflexive: end in –self or –selves and refer to an earlier
noun or pronoun
– Intensive: add emphasis
Lesson 4.2 Pronoun Lists
Demonstrative
Interrogative
Personal
Possessive
Indefinite
I, me, we,
us, you, he,
him, she,
her, it they,
them
my, mine,
our, ours,
your, yours,
her, hers,
his, its, their,
theirs
all, any,
That, this,
Who?
anyone,
these, those What?
both, either,
Whose?
everyone,
Whom?
few, most,
What?
nobody,
no one,
several,
somebody,
another,
anybody,
each,
everybody,
many,
neither, non,
one, some,
someone
Reflexive and
Intensive
Myself,
ourselves,
yourself,
yourselves,
herself,
himself,
itself,
themselves
Lesson 4.3 Verbs
• Verbs—words that express an action or a state of
being.
– Some actions are seen (run), some are not (imagine).
– Verbs change form to indicate time. (work, works, was
working)
• Linking verbs—join the subject of a sentence
with a word or words that identify or describe it.
• Verb phrase—contains a main verb and a helping
verb
– ex. should have been
Lesson 4.4 Adjectives
• Adjectives—modifiers that give information about the
nouns and pronouns they modify.
– They answer what kind, how many, how much, or which
one.
• Types of Adjectives
– Definite and indefinite articles: point to particular nouns or
any one member of a group.
– Proper: begin with capital letters.
• ex. Persian rug, African tourists
– Predicate adjectives: follow a linking verb
• Nouns modifying other nouns work like adjectives
– ex. desk drawer
opera house
Lesson 4.5 Adverbs
• Adverbs modify—or tell more about—verbs,
adjective, and other adverbs
• Many come before or after the verbs they
modify.
• Many adverbs end with the suffix –ly.
• Intensifier are adverbs that answer the
question to what extent?
Lesson 4.5 Adverb Lists
Adverbs that DON’T end in -ly
Intensifiers
Almost, already, also,
always, fast, here just,
late, more, much, never,
not, now, seldom, soon,
still, then, there, today,
tomorrow, well,
yesterday, yet
Less, least, more, most,
nearly, only, quite,
exceptionally,
extraordinarily, rather,
really, so, somewhat, too,
truly, very
Lesson 4.6 Combing Sentences:
Inserting Single-Word Modifiers
• One short sentence after another can be very boring.
Combine short, choppy sentences by inserting the key word
or words in one sentence into another sentence.
• You can change the form of a word or the order of the
modifiers to help you combine sentences.
• Steps for Combining Sentences
1.
2.
3.
4.
Identify the sentence that gives the central information.
In other sentences, find key words and phrases that you can
insert into the sentence you identified in Step 1.
Change key words as needed to create a smoothly flowing
sentence.
Read the combined sentence to see if it sounds natural.
Lesson 4.6 Examples
Original: Yellowstone Park has geysers and hot
springs. The geysers erupt regularly.
The hot springs bubble and boil.
Combined: Yellowstone Park has regularly
erupting geysers and bubbling,
boiling hot springs.
Lesson 4.7 Prepositions
• Prepositions connect another word in a sentence to
a noun or pronoun to form a prepositional phrase.
• If a word is an adverb and a preposition, look for a
prepositional phrase to make the distinction.
Commonly Used Prepositions
Compound Prepositions
about, as, below, during, from, near,
on, since, until, with, outside, inside,
through, at, above, by, into, of, our,
to , up, along, before, over, under,
like, off, across, against, around
according to, due to,
in addition to, in spite of,
apart from
Lesson 4.8 Conjunctions and Interjections
• Conjunctions join words or groups of words.
• Coordinating conjunctions join words or groups
of words that are equal in importance.
• Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs.
– The words or phrases joined by a pair of correlative
conjunctions should be parallel.
• Subordinating conjunctions connect adverb
clauses to main clauses.
• Interjections express mild or strong emotion. Set
them off with a comma or an exclamation point.
Lesson 4.8 Conjunctions and Interjections
Coordination Conjunctions Correlative Conjunctions
Common Interjections
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Ah, aha, alas, bravo,,, hey,
oh no, oops, ouch, ugh,
well, wow
both…and
either…or
just as… so (too)
neither…nor
not only…but also
whether…or
Lesson 4.9 Determining a Word’s Part of Speech
• Many words can function as more than one
part of speech.
• How a word is used in a sentence determines
its part of speech.
Chapter 5
PARTS OF A SENTENCE
Lesson 5.1 Using Complete Sentences
• Every sentence starts with a capital letter and finishes with
an end mark of punctuation.
sentence— a grammatically complete group of words that
expresses a thought.
sentence fragment —a group of words that is not
grammatically complete.
• 4 Sentence Purposes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Make a statement: Declarative
Make a command or request: Imperative
Ask a question: Interrogative
Express strong feeling: Exclamatory
Lesson 5.2 Subject and Predicate
• Subject—the part of a sentence that names the
person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about
• Predicate—the part of the sentence that tells what the
subject does, what it is or what happens to it.
• Simple subject—the key word or words in the subject
• Simple predicate—the verb or verb phrase that tells
something about the subject.
– not or n’t in a contraction is never part of a verb phrase
• The verb doesn’t always come after the subject. In a
question, the verb often comes first.
Lesson 5.3 Correcting Sentence Fragments
• Strategies for correcting sentence fragments:
1. Attach it. Join the fragment to a complete
sentence before or after it.
2. Add some words. Add the words needed to
make the group of words grammatically
complete.
3. Drop some words. Drop the subordinating
conjunction that creates a fragment.
•
Ex. After, as if, because, since, that, when, which
Lesson 5.4 Combining Sentences:
Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs
• Compound subjects can solve the problem of
repetition, which wastes space and wears out
your reader.
• A sentence with a compound subject has two
or more subjects sharing the same verb.
– Use a conjunction to join the separate subjects.
• A sentence with a compound verb has two or
more verbs sharing the same subject.
– Use a conjunction to join the separate verbs.
Lesson 5.5 Finding the Subject
Sometimes, less common sentence constructions or word order
see to bury or camouflage the subject.
Finding the subject:
1. Find the verb or verb phrase.
2. Ask Who or What before the verb.
– The girl in the red shirt won the match.
– Verb=won; Who won? =girl
•
•
•
•
Inverted sentences– the verb comes before the subject.
There and here are never subjects.
The subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.
In an imperative sentence, the subject is always you.
– The word you is called the understood subject.
– Even in direct address—which includes the name of the person being spoken to—the
subject is still you.
• Caitlin, [you] call the doctor and ask for her advice.
Lesson 5.6 Compound Sentences
• A compound sentence combines two or more simple
sentences into a single sentence.
• In a compound sentence, each simple sentence has at least
one subject and one verb.
• Strategies to make compound sentences:
1.
2.
3.
Use a comma and a conjunction
Use a semicolon
Use a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb
List of Conjunctive Adverbs:
accordingly, also, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however,
indeed, instead, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, similarly,
still, therefore, thus
Lesson 5.7 Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is made up of two or more sentences
that are incorrectly run together as a single sentence.
• Strategies to Correct Run-ons:
1. Separate them with end punctuation and a capital letter.
2. Use a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or, nor,
yet, so preceded by a comma.
3. Try a semicolon to separate the two sentences.
4. Add a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb and
comma.
5. Create a clause. Turn one of the sentences into a
subordinate clause.
Lesson 5.7 Run-on Sentences
Time
Place
Cause
Comparison
Condition
Purpose
after,
as long as,
as soon as,
before,
since, until,
when, while
where,
wherever
because,
since,
as,
as much as,
than,
whereas
although,
so that,
as long as,
that,
as if, even
in order that
though,
provided that,
though
unless, while
Lesson 5.8 Direct and Indirect Objects
• direct object– a noun or pronoun that receives the action of an action
verb.
– Finding Direct Objects:
1.
2.
Find the action verb.
Ask the question whom or what after the action verb.
• indirect object– a noun or pronoun that follows comes before the direct
object.
– Finding Indirect Objects:
• Find the action verb.
• Find the direct object.
• Ask the question to whom, for whom, to what or for what after the
action verb.
Lesson 5.9 Predicate Nominatives and
Predicate Adjectives
• COPY PAGE 121
• NO NOTES
Chapter 6
PHRASES
Lesson 6.1 Prepositional Phrases
• Prepositional phrases:
– Begin with a preposition and end with an object
– Add information to a sentence by modifying another word
in the sentence
– Have 2 forms: adjectival and adverbial
• Adjective Phrase
– modifies a noun or pronoun
– answers the questions which one or what kind
• Adverb Phrase
– modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
– answers the questions how or to what extent
Lesson 6.2 Appositives and Appositive Phrases
• appositive-a noun or pronoun that identifies or
explains the noun or pronoun that precedes it
• appositive phrase- a phrase made up of an
appositive and all of its modifiers
• Punctuating appositives:
– if the phrase is essential (necessary to the meaning of
the sentence), do NOT use commas
– If the phrase if nonessential, use a comma before it
and after it
Lesson 6.3 Participles and Participial Phrases
• Verbal- a verb form that functions as a different
part of speech.
f
• Participle- a type of verbal; a verb that acts as an
adjective, modifying a noun or a pronoun
– Types of Participles:
1.
2.
Present: always have an –ing ending
Past: often end in –d or –ed
• Participial phrases:
– Made up of a participle and all of its modifiers
– May contain objects, modifiers, and prepositional
phrases
– The whole phrase acts as an adjective
Lesson 6.4 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases
• verbal- a verb form that functions as a different
part of speech.
• gerund- a type of verbal; a verb from that ends in
–ing and acts as a noun.
• Gerund phrases:
– made up of a gerund and all of its modifiers and
complements
– modifiers include adjectives, adverbs, and
prepositional phrases
– the entire phrase functions as a noun.
Lesson 6.5 Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases
• verbal- a verb form that functions as a different
part of speech.
• infinitive- type of verbal; a verb form that is
almost always preceded by the word to and acts
as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
• Infinitive phrases:
– made up of an infinitive and all of its modifiers and
complements
– may contain prepositional phrases
– Sometimes have the word to implied
Lesson 6.6 Combining Sentences:
Inserting Phrases
• Ways to combine sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Creating compound sentences
Creating compound subjects
Creating compound verbs
Inserting phrases
• Sometimes your need to slightly change the
phrase you move.
• Sometimes you just move it as is.
• There is almost always more than one
possibility.
Chapter 7
CLAUSES
Lesson 7.1 Independent and Subordinate Clauses
• Independent (main) clause- expresses a
complete thought with a subject and a verb.
• Compound sentence- sentence made up of
two or more independent clauses joined by a
conjunction.
• Subordinate (dependent) clause- has a subject
and a verb but DOES NOT express a complete
thought
• Subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they
are sentence fragments.
Lesson 7.2 Subordinate Clauses:
Adjective Clauses
• Adjective clause—a subordinate clause that:
1.
2.
3.
functions as an adjective
modifies a noun or pronoun
Follows the word it modifies
• Adjective clauses are often introduced by:
–
relative pronouns: that, which, whom, those, who,
whose)
– Relative adverbs: when, where
• Adj. clauses sometimes omit the relative pronouns
and adverbs. These are called elliptical.
• The adj. clause can be essential or nonessential.
Nonessentials are set off by commas.
Lesson 7.3 Subordinate Clauses: Adverb Clauses
• Adverb clause—a subordinate clause that
functions as an adverb, modifying a verb,
adjective, or another adverb
• They tell how, how much, when, where, why, to
what extend, or under what circumstances.
• They are set off by a comma if they come at the
beginning of the sentence.
• Often introduced by subordinating conjunctions:
After, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as , as soon as, as though, because,
before, even though, except that, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, than,
that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether,
which, while
Lesson 7.4 Combining Sentences:
Using Subordinate Clauses
• Combining with Adjective Clauses
– Begin that adjective clause with who, which, that, those,
whom, whose, when, or where.
– Use commas if the clause is nonessential.
• Combining with Adverb Clauses
– Being the adverb clause with a subordinating conjunction.
Time
Place
Cause
Comparison
Condition
Purpose
After, before,
as long as,
as soon as,
since, until,
when, while
Where,
wherever
Because,
since
As,
as much as,
than,
whereas
Although,
as long as,
even though,
as if, though
provided that,
unless, while
So that, that,
in order that
Lesson 7.5 Noun Clauses
• Noun clause—a subordinate clause that functions as
a noun.
• It can be :
– a subject
– a predicate nominative,
– a direct object,
– an indirect object, or
– an object of a preposition.
• It can come at the beginning, middle, or end of a
sentence.
• Words that introduce noun clauses:
– How, if, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether,
which, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, why
Lesson 7.6 Four Types of Sentence Structures
Four Ways to Build a Sentence
1. Simple Sentence
•Has one independent clause and one subordinate clauses.
2. Compound Sentence
•Has two or more independent clauses and no subordinate
clauses.
3. Complex Sentence
•Has one independent clause and at least one subordinate
clause.
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
•Has two or more independent clauses and at least on
subordinate clause.
• Different sentence structures add variety to your
writing.
Lesson 7.7 Effective Sentences: Parallel Structure
• Parallel sentences uses the same part of speech or
grammatical structure to convey equal or related ideas.
1. Sentence parts linked by coordination conjunctions.
–
Time of day, amount of light, and distance from the subject are
all factors in taking photographs.
•
Noun followed by prepositional phrase
2. Sentence parts linked by correlative conjunctions
– He is responsible not only for leading us but also for feeding us.
• a correlative conjunction followed by a prepositional phrase
3. Sentence parts that compare or contrast
– I was more interested in what the exhibit showed than in what
Martha said.
• Noun clauses both precede and follow than
Lesson 7.8 Effective Paragraphs:
Varying Sentences
• Three Ways to Vary Sentences
1. Vary beginnings (use different phrases and clauses)
2. Use a variety of sentence structures
•
•
•
•
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound-complex
3. Vary the lengths of your sentences.
•
•
Place short ones between long ones.
Use short sentences for emphasis.