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International Journal of Electronics and Computer Science Engineering
Available Online at www.ijecse.org
1140
ISSN- 2277-1956
A Survey of Advanced Microwave Frequency
Measurement Techniques
Anand Swaroop Khare
Department of Electronics & Communication
Shri Ram Institute of Technology
Jabalpur, M.P., India
[email protected]
Abstract- Microwaves are radio waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one
millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. The science of photonics includes the
generation, emission, modulation, signal processing, switching, transmission, amplification, detection and sensing of
light. Microwave photonics has been introduced for achieving ultra broadband signal processing. Instantaneous
Frequency Measurement (IFM) receivers play an important role in electronic warfare. Technologies used for signal
processing, include conventional direct Radio Frequency (RF) techniques, digital techniques, intermediate frequency
(IF) techniques and photonic techniques. Direct RF techniques suffer an increased loss, high dispersion, and unwanted
radiation problems in high frequencies. The systems that use traditional RF techniques can be bulky and often lack the
agility required to perform advanced signal processing in rapidly changing environments. In this paper we discussed a
survey of Microwave Frequency Measurement Techniques. The microwaves techniques are categorized based upon
different approaches. This paper provides the major advancement in the Microwave Frequency Measurement
Techniques research; using these approaches the features and categories in the surveyed existing work.
Keywords- Microwaves, Radio Frequency, IFM
Introduction
Last sixty years the increase in the uses of microwaves for everyday applications has grown exponentially.
Microwaves are used in many applications today, ranging from ground mapping to cell phones, to every type of
radar in use. Because microwaves are capable of measuring various parameters inside of a closed volume, through
harmless penetration, they have become ideal for advancements in biological measurement applications.
Applications of microwaves in the medical field include, and are not limited to, microwave tomography scanning
systems, breast tumor detection, RF/Microwave ablation for treatment of cardiac arrhythmias, obstructive sleep
apnea and benign prostatic hypertrophy, microwave balloon angioplasty, microwave assisted lipoplasty, and electrothermal arthroscopic surgery. In traditional defense applications, IF and digital techniques are very popular;
however, the significant hardware associated with the transport and processing of multiple IF signals, specifically
cabling, can introduce considerable cost, bulk and weight. A new signal processing technique which has recently
been developed is microwave photonic signal processing. The attractive features of this technique are handling
broadband signals directly therefore avoiding problems associated with the limited frequency range of digital
implementations and the parallel implementations used in IF processing for frequency down conversion. Microwave
photonic also offers frequency independent loss, elimination of the need for matching networks, and immunity to
electromagnetic interference. It is possible to perform some signal processing operations directly in the photonic
domain. In this paper we represent a survey of Microwave Frequency Measurement Techniques [1].
Background Techniques
Microwave Frequency Measurement:
Microwave frequency can be measured by either electronic or mechanical techniques. Frequency counters or high
frequency heterodyne systems can be used. Here the unknown frequency is compared with harmonics of a known
lower frequency by use of a low frequency generator, a harmonic generator and a mixer. Accuracy of the
measurement is limited by the accuracy and stability of the reference source. Mechanical methods require a tunable
resonator such as an absorption wave meter, which has a known relation between a physical dimension and
frequency. In a laboratory setting, Lecher lines can be used to directly measure the wavelength on a transmission
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A Survey of Advanced Microwave Frequency Measurement Techniques
line made of parallel wires, the frequency can then be calculated. A similar technique is to use a
slotted waveguide or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the wavelength. These devices consist of a probe
introduced into the line through a longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted
lines are primarily intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line. However, provided
a standing wave is present, they may also be used to measure the distance between the nodes, which is equal to half
the wavelength. Precision of this method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations [2] and [3].
Instantaneous Frequency Measurement (IFM):
The modern Instantaneous Frequency Measurement Receiver (IFM) system has come a long way since the
introduction of basic Digital Frequency Discriminator (DFD) technology. What started out as a simple technique to
extract digital RF frequency data over a wide instantaneous bandwidth, mainly for pulsed RF inputs, has evolved
into an efficient system for real time encoding of the RF input frequency, amplitude, pulse width, and Time Of
Arrival (TOA) for pulsed and CW RF inputs. For this reason, IFM Receivers now are incorporated in most advanced
EW systems. The basic measurement technology for RF frequency encoding is the microwave correlate. This simple
device processes an RF input signal by splitting it into two paths, delaying one path with respect to the other, and
then multiplying the two paths. This produces a video signal output of the form Sin ωt, where t is the delay time and
ω is the RF input carrier frequency. Introduction of a 90-degree phase shift will produce the video output form Cos
ωt; usually these two video forms are simultaneously employed and the tan-1 of the ratio of the two is then processed
to produce the desired RF frequency data. The DFD correlator output data is periodic over frequency with a period
of 1/t. In order to simultaneously provide a wide instantaneous bandwidth and acceptable frequency accuracy,
multiple correlators are employed in parallel, with the shortest correlator RF delay, t, determining the unambiguous
RF bandwidth and the longest correlator RF delay setting the frequency measurement accuracy.
Successful application of advanced IFM receiver technology for manned and/or unmanned patrol aircraft and
surface vessels offers significant advantages to help assure critical mission success at minimal costs, minimal risks,
and enhanced security. There’s no doubt that as ever more sophisticated platforms are developed, the advancements
in IFM receiver technology will keep pace so as to assure a nation’s security in an increasing modern techniques [4]
and [7].
Related Works
Xiaomin Zhang et. al. proposed a microwave signal with its frequency to be measured is modulated on two optical
wavelengths at the phase modulator, with the phase-modulated optical signals sent to a dispersive element, and
detected at two photo-detectors. Due to the chromatic dispersion of the dispersive element, the two microwave
signals will experience different power fading, leading to different power versus frequency functions. A fixed
relationship between the microwave frequency and the microwave powers is established. By measuring the
microwave powers, the microwave frequency is estimated. Compared with the techniques using an intensity
modulator, the proposed approach is simpler with less loss. Since no bias is needed the system has a better stability,
which is highly expected for defense applications. The system consists of two laser diodes (LDs), a wavelength
multiplexer, an optical phase modulator, a length of dispersive fiber serving as the dispersive element, a wavelength
de-multiplexer, and two photo-detectors (PDs). The light waves at different wavelengths from the two LDs are
combined by the multiplexer and sent to the phase modulator. An unknown RF signal is applied to the phase
modulator to phase-modulate the two optical carriers. The modulated optical signals propagate in
the dispersive fiber, which are then separated by the de-multiplexer and converted to electrical signals at the two
PDs. Since the dispersion coefficients are different for the two carriers, the detected RF powers are different for the
two channels. The difference in the detected RF powers will be used to determine the frequency of the unknown RF
signal.
The experimental results demonstrated a novel technique for instantaneous microwave frequency measurement
using an optical phase modulator. The frequency of a microwave signal was estimated by measuring the microwave
powers at the outputs of the two PDs, with the two microwave signals carried by two different optical wavelengths
that were experiencing different power fading. The key significance of the proposed approach is the use of an optical
phase modulator. Since no bias was needed, the biasing drifting problem existing in an MZM-based system was
completely eliminated, leading to improved system stability. This feature is highly expected in the defense systems.
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Anand Swaroop Khare
The use of an optical phase modulator needed to make the system simpler for lower loss, which is also desirable for
defense [1].
James Benford et. al. suggested for transferring energy from Earth-to-space, space-to-Earth, and space-to-space
using high-power microwave (HPM) beams. All use power beaming. Microwave beams have been studied for
propelling spacecraft for launch to orbit, orbit raising, launch from orbit into interplanetary and interstellar space,
and deployment of large space structures. The microwave thermal rocket, called the “microwave thermal thruster,”
is a reusable single-stage vehicle that uses an HPM beam to provide power to a heat-exchanger propulsion system,
with double the specific impulse of conventional rockets. Orbital missions include orbit raising and space solar
power. Microwave-propelled sails are a new class of spacecraft that promises to revolutionize future space probes.
Experiments and simulations have verified that sails riding beams can be stable on the beam for conical sail shapes.
Beam-driven sail flights have now demonstrated the basic features of the beam-driven propulsion. Beams can also
carry angular momentum and communicate it to a sail to help control it in flight. An early mission for microwave
space propulsion is dramatically shortening the time needed for sails to escape Earth’s orbit. Microwave and
millimeter-wave array antennas are already in use for astronomy; sources at high frequencies are being developed
for fusion and the military. Development of high-power arrays is needed. A synergistic way to develop a space
power-beaming infrastructure is incremental buildup, addressing lower power applications first, and then upgrading.
MICROWAVE beams have been studied for space for a variety of applications as follows:
1) Launch to orbit;
2) Orbital missions, including orbit rising and space solar power (SSP);
3) Launch from orbit into interplanetary and interstellar space;
4) Deployment of large space structures;
5) Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) Beacons.
Space Solar Power (SSP) is potentially a huge business but faces a basic economic issue: the cost of construction of
extremely large solar collectors and antennas in orbit. There is a synergism between photovoltaic technology on
Earth, power beaming for space, and SPS.
Cost of such large HPM systems is driven by two elements the capital cost, including microwave-source and
radiating-aperture costs, and the operating cost, which is the cost of the electricity to drive the system. For fixed
effective isotropic radiated power, minimum capital cost is achieved when the cost is equally divided between
antenna gain and radiated power. This can be used to easily optimize costs. SETI Beacons are an example of cost
optimization, giving new insights to an intriguing topic.
The system interference with unintended targets in the side lobes, spectrum allocation, and potential weaponization
(inflicting harm). It also need to develop a space power-beaming infrastructure is incremental buildup, with lower
power applications [2].
Chao Wang et. al. proposed a photonic microwave filter with nonlinear phase response to implement matched
filtering. The photonic microwave filter with the required phase response is realized based on optical phase to
microwave phase conversion through single sideband modulation and heterodyne detection. A detailed theoretical
analysis on the photonic microwave filter design and the linearly chirped microwave pulse compression is
developed. A photonic microwave filter having a quadratic phase response with a bandwidth of 3 GHz is
implemented. An application of the photonic microwave filter for linearly chirped microwave pulse compression is
investigated.
In the system, a continuous-wave (CW) light from a laser diode (LD) is fiber coupled to an optical single-sideband
modulator, which is driven by an input chirped microwave pulse to be compressed. The modulated optical field has
a single-sideband format. The carrier and one sideband are then sent to an optical phase filter where different phase
responses are applied to the carrier and the sideband. The magnitude spectra of the optical field components and
optical filter response are also schematically illustrated. The output microwave signal is recovered via the
heterodyne beating between the carrier and the sideband at a high-seed photo-detector.
The proposed microwave filter was realized based on single-sideband modulation and heterodyne detection at a
high-speed photo-detector, to transfer the optical filter response to the response of the microwave filter. The key
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A Survey of Advanced Microwave Frequency Measurement Techniques
component in the proposed system is the FBG, which was designed to have a user-defined nonlinear phase response.
The key advantage of this approach is that the system can be implemented using pure fiber-optic components, which
has the potential for integration.
A detailed theoretical analysis on the photonic microwave filter design and the chirped microwave pulse
compression was developed. A photonic microwave filter having a quadratic phase response with a bandwidth of 3
GHz was experimentally generated. The compression of a linearly chirped microwave pulse using the implemented
microwave filter was investigated.
The demonstrated approach offers an optical solution to the compression of a high-frequency chirped microwave
signal for applications in modern radar and other civil and defense systems. To achieve a higher pulse compression
ratio for a highly chirped microwave pulse, an optical filter need more accurately controlled phase response and a
broader bandwidth is required [3].
Xihua Zou et. al. propose an approach for the measurement of microwave frequency in the optical domain with
adjustable measurement range and resolution. In the proposed approach, two
optical wavelengths with a large wavelength spacing are modulated by an unknown microwave signal in a Mach–
Zehnder modulator (MZM). The optical output from the MZM is sent to a dispersive fiber to introduce different
chromatic dispersions, leading to different microwave power penalties. The two wavelengths are then separated,
with the microwave powers measured by two photo-detectors. A fixed relationship between the microwave power
ratio and the microwave frequency is established. The microwave frequency is estimated by measuring the two
microwave powers. The frequency measurement range and resolution can be adjusted by tuning the wavelength
spacing. Different frequency measurement ranges and resolutions are demonstrated experimentally.
The proposed system consists of two tunable laser sources (TLSs), a Mach–Zehnder modulator (MZM), a length of
dispersive fiber, two tunable optical filters, and two photo-detectors (PDs). A microwave signal with its frequency to
be measured is applied to the MZM to intensity-modulate the two optical wavelengths. Since the microwave signal
is usually at a low power level, small signal modulation is considered. The two intensity-modulated light waves are
then sent to the dispersive fiber. Since the chromatic dispersions are different for the two wavelengths, different
dispersion-induced power penalties would result. The two wavelengths are then separated by the optical filters. The
output microwave powers are measured at the outputs of the two PDs.
The key device in the system is the dispersive fiber, which was used to introduce different chromatic dispersions,
leading to different power penalties. The microwave frequency was calculated by measuring the microwave powers,
thanks to a fixed relationship between the power ratio and the microwave frequency. In addition to the simplicity,
the proposed technique has a significant advantage: it has an adjustable measurement range and resolution. There is
a trade-off between the measurement range and resolution.
However, the trade-off should be eliminated by using or more wavelengths, which can’t provide a significantly. The
system need to improve measurement resolution while maintaining a large measurement range [4].
Eddie Wadbro et. al. applied the material distribution technique used for topology optimization of elastic structures
in order to solve the nonlinear least-squares problem underlying the reconstruction problem. Using simulated
numerical data with an approximate signal-to-noise ratio of 40 dB and geometrical a priori information on the
unknown objects, they obtain good estimates of the dielectric properties corresponding to biological objects. We use
the Method of Moving Asymptotes (MMA) to numerically solve optimization problem. The MMA is a gradientbased optimization method that is particularly well suited for problems in which the decision and state (u) variables
are bilinear related. We also make use of MMA's ability to exploit the least-squares structure of the objective
function. We seek the permittivity within the class of functions being constant on each element on the coarse mesh,
resulting in a nonlinear optimization problem with unknown complex variables.
The experiments using inexact data suggest that the use of multiple frequencies in the reconstruction is beneficial. In
the case of inexact data, a filtering procedure can be used to combat noise. They tested two approaches: filtering
throughout the optimization, and applying filtering solely as a post processing.
The filtering within the optimization does not seem to enhance the efficient quality of the reconstruction; it should
be improved in future [5].
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IJECSE,Volume1,Number 3
Anand Swaroop Khare
Junqiang Zhou et. al. proposed a photonic microwave filter having a monotonic frequency response with the
magnitude varying from positive infinity to negative infinity on a log scale, is constructed by cascading two
photonic microwave filters with one having an infinite impulse response and the other having a finite impulse
response. For a single-frequency microwave signal with a normalized magnitude, a unique relationship between the
output response and the input frequency is established. Since the response extends from positive to negative infinity,
for a given measurement range, a significantly increased measurement resolution is achieved.
They proposed an improved photonic approach for microwave frequency measurement using a photonic microwave
filter with an infinite impulse response (IIR) filter. It is different from the previous approaches in that only one filter
response is measured, so that only one PD is required. This lowers the expected measurement error; the complexity
and cost of the measurement system are also considerably reduced. Moreover, theoretically the power variation of
the response is infinite which is similar to the ACF; therefore, the measurement resolution can be maintained.
They had proposed and experimentally demonstrated a novel approach to photonic microwave frequency
measurement using a photonic microwave filter with an IIR. The key significance of the approach is that the transfer
function of the filter has infinite power variation, which increases significantly the measurement resolution.
The system does not applicable for multiple laser sources, a modulator, and a PD were needed; the system
complexity should need more reduced [6].
Moto Kinoshita et. al. described the development of a new type of microwave power standard based on atomic
resonances. An atomic Rabi frequency is proportional to the magnetic field strength of the resonant microwave; the
proportionality constant is determined only from fundamental constants and atomic quantum theory. The microwave
field strength that corresponds to microwave power is thus uniquely determined by the Rabi frequency. The
proportionality constant can thus serve as the basis for a new microwave power standard. This paper confirmed that
the Rabi frequency of cesium-133 (133Cs) atoms in a rectangular cell is proportional to the incident microwave field
strength. A rectangular Cs glass cell was developed and inserted into a WR90 waveguide an industrially practical
waveguide that permits the impedance analysis necessary to measure microwave power.
They reported on a method of detecting atomic Rabi resonance using vapor-phase Cs atoms in a glass cell inserted
into a WR90 waveguide. This setup offers significant advantages over previous setups: The WR90 is a popular
industrially practical waveguide that requires no special adaptation and simplifies impedance analysis, and Cs atoms
in the glass cell are simple to use.
They also confirm the feasibility of the new microwave power standard. We previously reported Rabi frequency
measurements using a Cs cell inserted into a WR90 waveguide. In this paper, expand that report by estimating
uncertainties, calculating the absolute value of the microwave field strength, and discussing the dynamic range of
the proportional dependence of the microwave field strength. The combined standard uncertainty is the root sum of
squares of the standard uncertainty for an estimation of a peak position of the fitted parametric excitation spectrum
and the type-A standard uncertainty. Both these uncertainty factors were approximately equivalent in this result. The
relative combined uncertainty is composed of curve fitting and the type-A uncertainty. As the type-A uncertainty
would be reduced by repeated measurements, the uncertainty of curve fitting is important for improvement in
accuracy. Narrowing the line width of the parametric excitation spectrum should reduce this uncertainty. Narrowing
the spectrum can be realized by optimizing the buffer gas.
In this system, the feasibility of an atomic microwave power standard based on quite a different principle from the
present standard was demonstrated.
To transform the microwave field strength into the absolute value of the power, an analysis of the impedance of the
microwave waveguide is required for future improvement [7].
Adam Konrad Rutkowski et. al. proposed in the work as an alternative solution for ambiguity function evaluation.
This discriminator carries out vectorial summing of the received and the reference signals. The summing operations
in QMPD are carried out with the aid of microwave elements and without the use of expensive digital signal
processors. Definitions of the phase and phase difference of the so-called simple signals and noise signals were
described. A proposal of a passive radar equipped with several independent quadrature microwave phase
discriminators was presented. The phase difference of exactly equal noise signals will also be time independent. If,
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A Survey of Advanced Microwave Frequency Measurement Techniques
however, the structures of noise signals are identical, but these signals are mutually delayed, then their phase
difference jw varies in time. When the time shift of these signals will be larger than the frequency of these changes
will also be larger. These features make it more effective to compare signals and to perform their identification even
in a dense environment. Moreover, these features can be utilized in the process of target detection performed in
radiolocation, especially in these using noise-like signals.
Standard active radar emits radio signals that are reflected off the target. The reflected signals are often called
echoes. These echoes after being received are used to locate the targets in direction and at a range. The critical
drawback is that the active radar should be equipped with its own transmitter. A passive radar system has no emitter
and it does not transmit any signals. It only receives electromagnetic (EM) signals and operates independently
without direct synchronization from the so called non-cooperative emitter or illuminator of opportunity.
In passive radars using signals of opportunity emitted by non-cooperative transmitters, the pattern signal used to
form the reference signal and to detect the echo signals has to be extracted from the surrounding space or reproduced
on the basis of measurements of the received emission or on the basis of predictions or information coming from
reconnaissance. In the presented structure of the radar, to find the returned signals, instead of evaluating the crosscorrelation function requiring the multiplication of signals, their parallel vectorial addition with simultaneous
diverse phase shifting was proposed. In the presented version, the vectorial additions are processed using the
microwave six-port which is part of the quadrature microwave phase discriminator QMPD and which consists of
one power divider and three directional couplers. This discriminator can instantaneously compare phases of simple
signals and phases of the noise signals too. Therefore, the passive radar based on the quadrature microwave phase
discriminators is able to make use of pulsed or continuous narrowband and wideband signals as well. The system
need to improve for getting more noise free signal [8].
Techniques
Microwave Frequency
Measurement, Microwave
Photonics, and phase Modulation.
Microwave Oscillators,
Microwave Power Amplifiers,
Microwave Power Transmission
Chirped Microwave Pulse, Fiber
Bragg grating (FBG), Frequency
Modulation
Microwave Frequency
Measurement, Microwave
Photonics, Optical Microwave
Merits
The experimental results demonstrated a
novel technique for instantaneous microwave
frequency measurement using an optical
phase modulator. The frequency of a
microwave signal was estimated by measuring
the microwave powers at the outputs of the
two PDs, with the two microwave signals
carried by two different optical wavelengths
that were experiencing different power fading.
The key significance of the proposed
approach is the use of an optical phase
modulator. This feature is highly expected in
the defense systems.
Fixed effective isotropic radiated power,
minimum capital cost is achieved when the
cost is equally divided between antenna gain
and radiated power. This can be used to easily
optimize costs. SETI Beacons are an example
of cost optimization, giving new insights to an
intriguing topic.
The system interference with unintended
targets in the side lobes, spectrum
allocation, and potential weaponization
(inflicting harm). It also need to develop
a space power-beaming infrastructure is
incremental buildup, with lower power
applications [2].
The demonstrated approach offers an optical
solution to the compression of a highfrequency chirped microwave signal for
applications in modern radar and other civil
and defense systems.
To achieve a higher pulse compression
ratio for a highly chirped microwave
pulse, an optical filter need more
accurately controlled phase response and
a broader bandwidth is required [3].
The microwave frequency was calculated by
measuring the microwave powers, thanks to a
fixed relationship between the power ratio and
the microwave frequency. In addition to the
However, the trade-off should be
eliminated
by
using
or
more
wavelengths, which can’t provide a
significantly. The system need to
ISSN 2277-1956/V1N3-1140-1147
Demerits
The use of an optical phase modulator
needed to make the system simpler for
lower loss, which is also desirable for
defense [1].
IJECSE,Volume1,Number 3
Anand Swaroop Khare
signal Processing.
Medical Microwave Tomography,
Topology Optimization
IFM,
Microwave Photonics, Photonic
Microwave Filter.
Microwave Detectors, Microwave
Measurements, Microwave
Spectroscopy
IFM, Microwave Phase
Discriminator
simplicity, the proposed technique has a
significant advantage: it has an adjustable
measurement range and resolution. There is a
trade-off between the measurement range and
resolution.
improve measurement resolution while
maintaining a large measurement range
[4].
The experiments using inexact data suggest
that the use of multiple frequencies in the
reconstruction is beneficial. In the case of
inexact data, a filtering procedure can be used
to combat noise. They tested two approaches:
filtering throughout the optimization, and
applying filtering solely as a post processing.
The filtering within the optimization
does not seem to enhance the efficient
quality of the reconstruction; it should be
improved in future [5].
A novel approach to photonic microwave
frequency measurement using a photonic
microwave filter with an IIR. The key
significance of the approach is that the
transfer function of the filter has infinite
power variation, which increases significantly
the measurement resolution.
The system does not applicable for
multiple laser sources, a modulator, and
a PD were needed; the system
complexity should need more reduced
[6].
In this system, the feasibility of an atomic
microwave power standard based on quite a
different principle from the present standard
was demonstrated.
To transform the microwave field
strength into the absolute value of the
power, an analysis of the impedance of
the microwave waveguide is required for
future improvement [7].
The passive radar based on the quadrature
microwave phase discriminators is able to
make use of pulsed or continuous narrowband
and wideband signals as well.
The system need to improve for getting
more noise free signal [8].
Conclusion
Technologies used for signal processing, include conventional direct Radio Frequency (RF) techniques, digital
techniques, intermediate frequency (IF) techniques and photonic techniques. Direct RF techniques suffer an
increased loss, high dispersion, and unwanted radiation problems in high frequencies. Microwave photonics has
been investigated as a means of reducing the bulk of signal processing systems required at the receiving antenna.
The general concept is to use broadband, low noise optical modulators to convert RF signals into the optical domain,
transmit them via optical fiber and then return them to the microwave domain using broadband photo-detectors.
During the survey, we also find some points that can be further explored in the future using advanced technique in
microwave frequency measurement methods and will improve the optimized detector technique to achieve more
efficient accuracy in frequency measurement.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
Xiaomin Zhang, Hao Chi, Xianmin Zhang, Shilie Zheng, Xiaofeng Jin, and Jianping Yao, “Instantaneous Microwave Frequency
Measurement Using an Optical Phase Modulator”, IEEE MICROWAVE AND WIRELESS COMPONENTS LETTERS, VOL. 19, NO. 6,
JUNE 2009, pp 422-424.
James Benford, “Space Applications of High-Power Microwaves”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 36, NO. 3,
JUNE 2008, pp 569-581.
Chao Wang, and Jianping Yao, “Chirped Microwave Pulse Compression Using a Photonic Microwave Filter With a Nonlinear Phase
Response”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 57, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2009, pp 496504.
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A Survey of Advanced Microwave Frequency Measurement Techniques
[4]
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[7]
[8]
Xihua Zou and Jianping Yao, “An Optical Approach to Microwave Frequency Measurement With Adjustable Measurement Range and
Resolution”, IEEE PHOTONICS TECHNOLOGY LETTERS, VOL. 20, NO. 23, DECEMBER 1, 2008, pp 1989-1991.
Eddie Wadbro, Martin Berggren, “High Contrast Microwave Tomography using Topology Optimization Techniques”, J. Comput. Appl.
Math., Preprint submitted to Elsevier Science 22 February 2011.
Junqiang Zhou, Sheel Aditya, Perry Ping Shum, and Jianping Yao,” Instantaneous Microwave Frequency Measurement Using a Photonic
Microwave Filter With an Infinite Impulse Response”, IEEE PHOTONICS TECHNOLOGY LETTERS, VOL. 22, NO. 10, MAY 15, 2010,
pp 682-684.
Moto Kinoshita, Kazuhiro Shimaoka, and Koji Komiyama, “Determination of the Microwave Field Strength Using the Rabi Oscillation for
a New Microwave Power Standard”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 58, NO. 4,
APRIL 2009, pp 1114-1119.
Adam Konrad Rutkowski, “A CONCEPT OF A PASSIVE RADAR WITH QUADRATURE MICROWAVE PHASE
DISCRIMINATORS”, Metrol. Meas. Syst., Vol. XIX (2012), No. 1, pp. 95-104.
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