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SWP 44187
CONSUMER
BOYCOTTS
AND
CONSUMER
SOVEREIGNTY
DR CRAIG SMITH
Cranfield School of Management
Cranfield Institute of Technology
Cranfield
Bedford MK43 OAL
(Tel: 0234 751122)
Forthcoming
Copyright:
in European Journal of Marketing
Smith 1987
ABSTRACT
This paper considers
how consumer boycotts
as consumer behaviour.
is identified
as the implicit
discipline.
It
illustration
of this
boycotts
domain.
claim
the marketing
to consumer boycotts
the argument.
an important
of consumer
Consumer
is shown to have two dimensions:
Information
degree and
is shown to be important
role
in
Three case examples of
the domain of consumer sovereignty
play
for
and in explanation
as consumer behaviour.
support
of consumer sovereignty
paradigm
is then applied
consumer boycotts
sovereignty
The concept
may be understood
in providing
and pressure
this.
in determining
groups may
Consumer boycotts
States
are far more prevalent
than Europe - and Britain
Apartheid
boycott
events
in particular
Yet for more than twenty-five
1978).
Movement in Britain
of South African
in South Africa
case, this
notable
boycott
have stopped stocking
Yet this
is only
towards
research
conducted
one in four
highlighting
some prominence
such as the Co-op,
South African
group's
and some
for
example,
goods(Halsal1,
1985).
by the South African
and other
consumer boycotts
issues
(see Smith,
on how consumer boycotts
to
embassy, as many as
consumers may view South African
There are many interesting
consumer
According
goods.
a
with
of a long-established
tainted.
focuses
promoting
the pressure
South African
indicative
antipathy
years the AntiMost recently,
products.
Stores
(Vogel,
has been actively
has achieved
successes.
in the United
products
raised
1985).
as
by this
This paper
may be understood
as
consumer behaviour.
The frequently
circular
arguments of consumer
satisfaction/dissatisfaction
favour
(CS/D) analyses
of an approach that
consumer sovereignty.
emphasises the concept
This approach,
examples show, can more readily
issues
which inspire
this
are eschewed in
of
as the three
accommodate the sort
form of consumer behaviour.
case
of
It
4
seems somewhat banal to use the term consumer
dissatisfaction
products
to refer
in protest
Africa
at a firm's
or some other
Moreover,
to consumer refusals
involvement
major political
consumer sovereignty
the marketing
to purchase
with
or ethical
can be usefully
a paradigm
for
how such's
paradigm may operate
South
issue.
construed
as
discipline.
This paper shows
in reference to consumer
boycotts.
A PARADIGMFOR MARKETING
The identification
generally
of a paradigm
considered
discipline's
status
or advancement.
tempted to judge marketing's
would be too hasty
paradigm
a discipline
to be an important
to be consensus on a paradigm
this
for
for marketing
indicator
is
of the
There does not appear
for marketing
and one might be
advancement accordingly.
a judgement.
Yet
There is an implicit
in the concept
of consumer
sovereignty.
Biggadike's
reasonably
contributions
(Biggadike,
i
of marketing
1981).
for
paradigm
for marketing
within
marketing
the entire
there
marketing
and pessimistic
but there
This paradigm
to satisfy
of the environment
of the
is no unifying
field
management.
management tries
the context
review
is both critical
He suggests
paradigm
that
comprehensive
is a
llsuggests
customers...
and the firm's
resources
and objectives
(the uncontrollable
designing
an appropriate
marketing
controllable
to dwell
on the role
paradigms
that
It
factors).l'
by extending
will
logic
In other
it
coherent
P's paper
work on
merely be suggested
it
may be claimed
may serve as the paradigm
Kuhn (1970, p.lO),
particular
and previous
It
[l].
discipline.
by
is not the purpose of this
Biggadikels
consumer sovereignty
marketing
mix (the four
of paradigms
for marketing
factors)
words,
that
for the
to paraphrase
Thomas
is the model from which springs
traditions
of scientific
research
in
marketing.
As it
role
is not the foremost
for
intention
consumer sovereignty,
proposed.
This is discussed
a paradigm
for marketing
argument.
It
a process
observe
and describe
role
demands a lengthy
and intricate
difficult
outside
may be largely
claim
As Baker has sensibly
question,
is a science
it
is probably
[2].
Such logic
to the debate on marketing's
debate,
worries
futile
earlier
this
better
to
the
in much the
about whether
of the marketing
discipline,
may
on
marketing
can be more forcefully
paradigm.
it
observed
to act as if
applied
This more recent
which too may be seen as an exercise
aggrandisement
because it
the discipline
same way as marketing's
to be a science.
is
Advancing
the dominant paradigm within
it
such a
in the next section.
of stepping
Finally,
discipline.
an alternative
is epistemologically
involves
here to claim
in the
is even more
6
futile.
for
The issue
such it
surely
is not whether
marketing
must have, but what that
this
will
emerge if
it
has
paradigm
paradigm,
a
is,
is not already
and
apparent
[3].
THE CENTRALITY OF CONSUMER
SOVEREIGNTYTO MARKETING
The alternative
view is that
core of marketing
thought.
agreement
on.
Definitions
consumer:
"the
'marketing
directed
toward
purveyor
of a customer
al,
looks
at the business
of a customer
(Drucker
the company's
matches its
The marketing
sovereignty.
marketing.
quoted
are predicated
"The marketing
of business
and physical
(Christopher
upon
makes it
concept
from
customers
(McCarthy,
1975,
a
belief
in all
resources
et al,
and a marketing
This is implicit
Kotler
in Boyd et
in which an organisation
way
customers"
discipline
want and as a
to satisfy
objectivesm
own human, financial
the wants of its
practice,
is the
as
the flow of goods and services
to consumer or user in order
Hmarketing
to be more
emphasise the
Wmarketing is the performance
and accomplish
p.19);
view'
is at the
is likely
of marketing
utility"
which direct
producer
This there
the satisfaction
1972, p.3);
activities
consumer sovereignty
1980, p.3).
orientation
in
in consumer
definitions
of
explicit:
expresses
commitment to the time-honoured
the company's
concept
in
with
7
economic theory
known as consumer sovereignty.
The determination
of what is to be produced should
not be in the hands of the companies or in the
hands of government but in the hands of consumers.
The companies produce what the consumers want and
in this
their
way maximise consumer welfare
that
(1984, pp.22-23).
profits"
In the teaching
of marketing,
the customer
customer
point
This act of faith
common sense (or rather,
disussed,
customer
support
failures
for
that
Yet the teacher
additionally,
the
management
by appeals to
and as later
and reference
to
resulted
for
'pop@ management gurus.
example,
Peters
In
and Waterman
to the customerl.
of marketing
might
alternatively,
or
case to the above of
Very briefly,
saying 'believe
the customer is important'.
it would
Firstly,
the following
argument could be employed.
be observed
recent,
present
marketing
is supported
may come from the latest
close
that
from the absence of a
such as Sinclair's
C5. Further
orientation,
'stay
all
of the market)
In Search of Excellence,
implore
are asked to believe
more accurately,
the ideology
commercial
students
is of supreme importance:
is the starting
decisions.
and earn
that
the practice
a structural
where supply
a theoretical
of marketing
is relatively
response to changed economic conditions
exceeds demand [4].
The position
would then be
taken - though to some it
marketing
has something
observed
that,
origins
follow
detailed
(Bartels,
The Wealth of Nations
neatly
discussion
of this
It
illustrates
could be
has its
There would then
spiced
markets
with
is an obvious
Free to Choose.
work.
favoured
economists;
rich
The Austrian
source,
but
economist
and an example from Human
the flavour
which would be taking
theoretical
[5].
and neo-classical
Mises also has much to offer
Action
1976).
could be suitably
so is Friedman's
- that
of how product
from the classical
Smith's
markets
novel
has shown, marketing
consideration
The discussion
seem quite
to do with
as Bartels
in economics
quotations
might
case for
of the class
place
in the presentation
a customer
orientation
in
marketing:
wThe direction
of all
market
society
a task of the entrepreneurs.
Theirs
is the
control
the helm and steer
observer
introducing
They are at
A superficial
they are supreme.
the captain's
is the consumer"
economics,
that
is in the
But
They are bound to obey
unconditionally
some wallowing
of production.
the ship.
would believe
they are not.
After
economic affairs
orders.
The captain
(1949, p.270).
in the euphoria
the discussion
of free
might be brought
the idea of mixed markets
market
down to earth
and producer
by
9
Blatant
sovereignty.
measure of realism
Galbraith
through
markets
to the various
such as
Consumer
economics.
and an underlying
definitions
example,
Crosier,
authority
in markets.
which this
information
the circumstances
is enhanced (principally,
and retailer
(a lack of competition,
and limits
to personal
that
competition,
wealth)
there
government
largely
is a considerable
is
and
intervention
may be covered.
in many markets,
under
where this
assessments),
restricted
concluded
as a
to degrees of consumer
Finally,
authority
concept
which abound (see,
can then be defined
1975),
term used to refer
to
and unifying
of marketing
technical
by some
to critics
having been shown to be central
understanding
choice,
would be displaced
reference
and to mainstream
sovereignty,
for
ideology
It
will
be
because of
degree of consumer
sovereignty.
So, as far
wishing
follow
driven.
as management practice
to be successful
on the firm
of marketing
and so on.
firms
have to
They must be market
- the marketing
resources,
what the firm
the constraints
environment
resources
of the marketing
with
and
The
is good at.
management might then be understood
terms of the manipulation
match the firm's
markets
could then explore
in doing this
the organisation's
task
in competitive
the wants of the customer.
The next class
is concerned,
in
mix so as to
the wants of the customer
10
In such a way, consumer sovereignty
central
to marketing
Yet acceptance
which academics,
to ignore.
ideological
likely
the discipline.
the recognition
discipline
by the
does highlight
as social
a feature
scientists,
might
This is the acknowledgement
basis
to marketing
to militate
sovereignty
for
or simply
of the marketing
of consumer sovereignty,
marketing
prefer
not the paradigm
of such a paradigm
of the underpinning
concept
if
can be shown to be
against
thought.
It
the recognition
as the paradigm
of the
is a factor
of consumer
for marketing.
IDEOLOGYAND MARKETING
Ideologies
for
serve two purposes:
and the justification
briefly
define
of interests.
ideology
legitimating
specific
and Kellner,
1981).
they provide
Berger
interests
Berger has earlier
serves
in society.
systematically
though not always,
distort
come out where it
so.. . The ideology
social
is functional
of free
(Berger
written:
when a certain
interest
of reality
in societyM
"We speak of an ideology
frequently,
and Kellner
as Ira set of definitions
vested
a vested
an explanation
idea
Very
ideologies
reality
for
enterprise
in order
them to do
serves
to
to
of
11
camouflage
the monopolistic
American corporations"
The ideology
model of capitalism,
Lindblom,
that
are made acceptable
function
they only think
the
to
is not
This
of consumers.
To twist
of marketing.
consumers are not really
capitalism;
business
proclaims
but under the control
at all,
is the latent
of capitalists
might be tempted to observe that
by an ideology
powerful
one of
in the West, both explains
and power of business
society
of large
1966, p.130).
the interests
A cynic
(producers).
this
ideologies
and justifies
activities
(Berger,
of the competitive
the most dominant
capitalism
practices
sovereign
they are [6].
a quote from
under
Marketing
fosters
belief.
Ideology
serves
and for
legitimising
marketing
highly
as an idea structure
concept
convenient
power - expressed
claiming
one's
.
At the base level
in strategies
believe
and other
permits
corporate
ways - while
would see it
on their
behalf.
acting
Of course,
- or,
this
perhaps,
Corporate
in the power of the consumer because this
is how ideologies
work.
dubious
that
practices
it
the wishes of the consumer.
academics speaking
executives
might be seen as
has no power and is merely
is not the way the corporations
marketing
Founding the
interests.
on consumer sovereignty
the corporation
in accord with
both for understanding
Any guilt
they may have, about
are a consequence of corporate
power
12
or merely
the recognition
process.
For as well
also
offer
As Silk
of managers:
advance a particular
themselves
Machiavellian,
be respected
however,
Insofar
what is their
from the
'scientific'
terms.
component.
Bartels
in the separation
practitioners
Is it
grounds
their
of all,
interests
tolerate?
seems to have a large
activities,
that
an ideological
academic discipline
they should
should
This said
how large
ideological
marketing's
in the latter
that
of them in
the ideological
of economics and marketing
surprising
to
an academic discipline?
to disentangle
has shown that
falling
legitimising
to think
Such ideologies
or 'factual',
discipline
to
world"
views of the world.
component can a respectable
The marketing
not simply
and confusing
place within
is possible
of the
but to enable people
is not sufficient
as legitimate
to be adhered to
functions
to a complicated
It
in the
ideologies
and Vogel write
"Ideology
manipulative
as it
interests,
interest.....
(1976, pp.31-32).
is allayed
which are likely
subscribers.
ideologies
power,
as justifying
explanations,
by their
orient
of that
origins
with
camp (Bartels,
build
lie
the
1976).
a body of knowledge
and on the most convenient
they are merely
serving
of the consumer and are tools
the best
at his
or her
command?
Yet marketing
analysed
is not the only discipline
in this
way.
The other
which can be
management disciplines
may
13
be likewise
writing
as Honour and Mainwaring
criticised,
of the "attitudes
in criticism
business
studies
lecturers
and values
who seem untroubled
and uses of the knowledge and values
Moreover,
(1982).
claims
that
interests
sciences
of the wielders
scientific
their
the social
gloss
blessing
example,
Parsons'
"socially
of sorcery"
referring
legitimates
underneath
"much of
holders
(pp.172-173).
of the social
may well
boils
So, for
scientific
of power as explained
function
in the interests
of power and giving
by way of illustration
necessary"
as a discipline
a pseudo-
(1972, p.10).
excesses by authority
than manifest
act to serve the
study of human behaviour
ideology
conception
as Sorcery,
He argues that
to the status-quo.
he finds
terminology,
frequently
on the crude realities
down to an equivalent
by the basis
Sciences
of power, putting
what passes as scientific
of
they seek to pass on"
in Social
Andreski,
argue when
to Talcott
by Lipset,
which
because they are
This is more of a latent
sciences,
be a prime exponent
but
marketing
of this,
acting
of producers.
'TESTING' THE IDEOLOGY
To sum-up the argument so far.
the paradigm
thought.
for marketing,
However, this
work is very close
if
is at the core of marketing
constitutes
component to the discipline.
markets
Consumer sovereignty,
a major
Marketing's
to that
ideological
model of how
of the free-market
not
14
economists
directed
who espouse an idealised
understanding
by what may be best termed as absolute
sovereignty.
Such a model is easily
world
are considered;
markets
competition
may be limited,
and, accordingly,
evident.
a large
as a technical
understanding
marketing
thought.
Of course,
competitive
markets
customer,
at least
of markets
as a dictate
acknowledge
even in highly
interest
It
might
market
firms
the wants of the
is concerned
with
exchange.
the study
of producers,
should
sovereignty,
Does it
not have an
than as a group to which
the marketing
be observed
in conflict
in
management.
markets.
is not a zero-sum game.
beneficial
to much current
some measure of producer
point
from
to marketing
is done (by manipulating
at this
basis
the interests
competitive
are not inevitably
mutually
that
in consumers other
something
The absence of
stands that
have to follow
and not just
to degrees of
of consumers1 status
still
But an academic discipline
sovereignty
to producers.
the ideological
the conclusion
restricted
is more accurately
term referring
this
indicates
where
degree of producer
relative
marketing
when real
consumer information
consumer authority
more accurate
consumer
displaced
mixed markets,
So consumer sovereignty
understood
surely
of markets
that
mix)?
the game of the
That consumers and producers
and markets
provide
This is neatly
for
illustrated
in
15
the following
quote from Thomas A. Murphy, as Chairman of
General Motors:
11
.
.
.
competitive
markets
could be relied
and free
consumer choice
on to set an economic course whch
The individual
would maximise human welfare...
citizen
has great
consumption
capacity
patterns
through
does not like
one product,
several
possibilities
other
This sensitive
to modify
of productive
free markets,
our system.
Each consumer, given his
can purchase
those products
the political
economic
of people,
is a fundamental,
under-appreciated
his own special
resources
preferences
though often
suit
he
- or none at all...
tailoring
through
If
free markets.
he can choose any of
to the complex and diverse
expressed
his
characteristic
of
free
choice,
which he feels
most
Unlike
needs and resources.
every person can win in an
system,
1election'1'
(in Silk
and Vogel,
coincidence
of interests
1976,
p.91).
However, this
perfect.
Consumers can have different
producers
and particularly
responsibility
in business.
consumer boycotts
boycotts,
on issues
are of great
consumers are,
This,
is not always
interests
to
of social
of course,
interest.
to use Murphy's
is where
In consumer
analogy,
employing
16
their
purchase
votes
They are voting
producers.
which they disapprove
other
words,
express
against
by not buying
of interest
to
business
practices
of
a firm's
product.
In
consumer sovereignty
to
about and perhaps change undesirable
by producers.
candidate
a difference
they are exercising
concern
activities
this
to express
The prospective
U.S. presidential
Jesse Jackson has used consumer sovereignty
way in his
campaigns for
civil
rights.
in
He has
observed:
'IWe have the power, nonviolently,
controlling
direction
people
cities
Motors,
you will
not sell
but to comply"
(quoted
it',
in
1978, p.39).
which illustrate
earlier
discussion
context
in which they may be considered,
to this
paper emphasises.
'test'
us a
here next year and help us finance
Three case examples follow
extent
black
cars in the
you guarantee
GM would have no choice
Vogel,
If
the
said simultaneously,
community unless
franchise
by
to determine
of the American economy.
in thirty
'General
black
our appetites,
just
of consumer sovereignty
Moreover,
the ideology.
in some circumstances
this.
'reality'
provides
The
the
as the conclusion
the cases to some
Or, rather,
they point
may closely
out that
conform to the
17
ideology,
that
consumer sovereignty
These circumstances
are later
The cases are presented
available
the boycott
South Africa,
marketing
Barclays
identified.
elsewhere
of Barclays
(Smith,
over its
the international
of baby milk
Californian
extensive.
here in a summary form,
in more detail
describe
may be quite
boycott
to the the Third
grape boycott
but they are
They
1985).
involvement
of Nestle
World,
with
over its
and the
over union recognition.
and South Africa
Apartheid
in South Africa
is an emotive
issue.
It
is
purportedly
a system whereby the many races of South Africa
may coexist
securely
and separately,
Yet many would argue that
advancing
separate
exploitation
of
consumer
the black
on other
as well,
and is frequently
links
Involvement
responsibility
function
fronts
with
ideology
the economic
There are probably
over South Africa
than any other
but equal.
a racist
to maintain
majority.
in Britain
boycotts
investment,
having
is in effect
development
system of apartheid
attacked
it
different
particularly
criticised
and its
Business
issue.
more
has been
by ethical
in the press
for
South Africa.
in South Africa
in business.
of apartheid
is a major issue
of social
This is because of the economic
and the role
of business
in
18
maintaining
and benefiting
economic progress
blacks
will
Congress
various
external
sanctions.
governments
of this
is argued that
the incorporation
is rejected
happening.
of control
(ANC) with
It
but this
evidence
is the armed seizure
for
necessitate
and end apartheid,
who see little
from it.
Their
applied
and business
have largely
engagement to protect
South Africa
is dependent on Western capital
and trade.
Direct
because of criticism
their
investment
and investment
States
- is thereby
and the maintenance
as the trade
with
materials
South Africa
This is aside
military
significance
economic,
committed
involves
political
use of effective
West unlikely.
economic interests
to the stability
raw
is the major source of
as a bastion
and strategic
Business,
of
particularly
strategic
from the country's
international
an
and the United
of apartheid,
for which South Africa
SUPPlY.
by indirect
involves
So the West - and Britain
South Africa
in the form of
has declined
interdependence.
especially
the pressure
interests.
but has been replaced
Yet trade
Western
economy, advocating
constructive
investment.
in the form of
resisted
in the South African
solution
National
While condemning apartheid,
disinvolvement
investment
by critics
by the African
pressure
of the
against
political
communism.
interdependence
economic sanctions
in turn,
and so follows
and
makes the
by the
wishes to defend
the government
This
its
line.
19
of international
The use, or otherwise,
against
South Africa
against
business
boycotts
trade
is closely
involvement
and investment
in South Africa
on Western
for
economic
token gestures
unrest
in South Africa,
has only been the UN arms embargo and the OPEC oil
Four principal
boycott.
sanctions:
the costs
to above; that
arguments are advanced against
for those imposing
effectiveness,
particularly
historically
then why oppose them?);
The latter
change from within,
this,
conduct
corporate
there
is some support
and, finally,
constructive
for
is prescribed
see little
working,
evidence
and particularly
come to be seen as tacit
substantial
international
These are
criticism
black
challenged
support
the recent
for
at
living
apartheid.
of constructive
with
by codes of
codes.
they may have raised
and
In accordance
comply to deflect
they have not really
standards,
'bridge-building'
is the most prominent.
involvement
for this,
measures are employed (but
argument,
but many firms
home, and although
most, but then it
doubts as to their
such as the EEC and Sullivan
voluntary
Critics
suffering:
when countervailing
engagement.
them, as referred
they would harm the blacks
is said they are already
with
and
and consumer
reliance
from the more recent
made in response to the continued
there
to the case for
has led to many calls
Yet apart
santions.
tied
South Africa's
over this.
economic sanctions
engagement
unrest,
With
apartheid.
economic sanctions
it
not
has
.
20
many consumers have chosen to support
forthcoming,
consumer boycott
moral act,
an expression
preferences
The consumer boycott
campaign.
by the individual
a sanction
on the issue,
to act.
It
aggregate
of pressure
change.
The revitalised
successes,
retail
authorities.
known consumer boycott,
The trend
Africa
towards
has singled
British
there
streets.
Barclays
constructive
with
branches
defend their
disproportionately
small
of some improvement.
dismiss,
for
apartheid
is cosmetic
Loans to South Africa
public
opinion
this
by promoting
claimed,
the local
All
the major
has a
on most British
high
with
and all
whether
the
they have a
employees,
critics
by firms
authority
is
accept but
or
So the pressure
group End
"moral,
and economic pressure"
from South Africa
the boycott.
there
constructive
(ELTSA) puts what they call
type pressure
bank to withdraw
in South
because of
This their
changes.
Bank.
vulnerable
Although
continues
engagement seems to achieve,
governments,
attack.
number of black
evidence
some
The most well-
involvement
engagement argument.
with
but Barclays
and is particularly
high visibility,
especially
forms of investment
out the banks for
as
boycott
is of Barclays
banks lend to South Africa,
subsidiary
its
of course,
indirect
or her
also adds to the
campaign has had some recent
and the local
as a
by the individual
is not prepared
outlets
is,
of his
the state
for
a
and cease loans.
Many account
closures
on the
They do
are
and church groups who close
21
their
accounts
despite
limited
impact
costs
bring
resources.
is minimal
Yet the pressure
dirty
from closing
of investment
Barclays
respond to their
to present
and investment
peaceful
down.
criticism
loss,
hurts.
case.
They note that
While little
business
It
recent
but if
(1985) end to its
public
weren't
constructive
again,
of
a bank cannot simply
rather
this
played
a part
the
in what
from
economic conditions
interpretation
majority
in themselves
close
than economic
step in a phased withdrawal
of Barclays
shareholding
sufficient.
is correct,
even if
its
Of course,
engagement may become a plausible
in which case the withdrawal
reversed.
"economic
instruments
then ELTSA may prove to have been successful
efforts
relations
They suggest
No doubt deteriorating
were paramount,
to the
is said to have been lost,
which is best seen as having
South Africa.
with
is perhaps this,
appears to be the first
the bank 'Ia
from South Africa.
are the only viable
change."
economic
in South Africa.
criticism
their
is
the gap between the
name," they say, and contributed
on the bank to withdraw
ties
and this
group have succeeded in getting
pressure
activities
publicity,
But ELTSA accept their
and far
and benefits
fairly
much valuable
argument
may be halted
or even
own
22
Nestle
and the Marketina
'Commerciogenic
marketing
malnutrition'
of the baby milk
largest
curtail
their
groups.
to the launch
the issue
of infant
more than fifteen
brought
and involved
of the boycott,
mortality
the case against
of the firm's
they similarly
Food Industries
But this
was
attention
groups
in an
of infant
Nestle,
for which the firm
the International
(ICIFI),
the industry's
took
judgement,
including
Other
A token attempt
made via
that
a libel
by the judge.
condemned.
ignored
a pamphlet
adverse publicity
practices
so inadequate
largely
from baby milk
group published
and succeeded in getting
was
ten years
marketing
Nestle
resulting
but at the cost of considerable
regulation
to
World.
outlining
critics
action
to their
the pressure
the firm's
One Swiss pressure
criticism
years
This ended most of the marketing
misuse.
them to court
around
and one of the
For the latter
excesses.
commission monitoring
in the Third
with
and take appropriate
were forcibly
of concern
formula
Prior
marketing
deficiencies
practices
this
World
in
took Nestle,
market worldwide
and accept
by pressure
audit
It
marketing
food companies in the world,
to realise
their
but its
circumstances.
to the Third
not the consequence of the
was
of a bad product,
inappropriate
half
of Babv Milk
Council
at selfof Infant
representative
the Protein-Calorie
body.
Advisory
23
Group, a UN agency,
refused
to act independently
industry's
critics
consumer boycott
Nestle
were far
acting
against
recognition
of this
hold a hearing
pressure
achieved
Nestle
of baby milk,
at the hearing,
groups as a threat
recognising
public
pressure
widespread
opinion
indisputably
to free
position
using public
When the World Health
Nestle
found,
were directly
restrictions
enterprise.
attempts
WHOofficials
came to light,
article
group monitoring
it,
the firm
However, it
did not
defend
activities.
(WHO) became involved,
that
marketing
surreptitious
a pro-Nestle
Finally
as the concerned pressure
participating,
on their
relations
Nestle's
groups
they could not avoid
practices.
to influence
this
as did their
in Fortune,
by
the
to more effectively
Organisation
particularly
established
to attack
chose to respond less antagonistically.
its
Kennedy to
the problems
was going against
address the issue but attempted
group
public
ignored
and tried
but
Formula
when they persuaded Senator
on the issue.
in the marketing
many experts
The Infant
(INFACT), the principal
Nestle,
States.
was the market leader
intransigence.
The
so in 1977 the
in the United
because it
left
on the issue.
from satisfied,
was launched
also because of its
Coalition
and one firm
and more effectively
was the target
Action
to endorse it
Their
by trying
role
more
to co-opt
in organising
and were to no avail.
(and others')
activities
The
in the
24
Third
World,
the International
(IBF=J) t continued
the firm
gave its
convince
its
with
Baby Food Action
to identify
support
critics
intentions
The pressure
the issue.
code was enforced
Yet when, in 1981,
abuses.
to the WHOcode, it
of its
could
not
to seriously
deal
groups wanted to be sure the
and used the boycott
were even made to increase
Network
to this
the international
Efforts
end.
scope of the
boycott.
In 1982, Nestle
announced that
its
accordance
with
WHOguidelines
and that
to be monitored
by the Nestle
Commission
critics
(NIFAC),
dismissed
exercise,
an independent
this
but for
Infant
policy
was then in
its
practices
Formula Audit
body.
Many of the firm's
as no more than a public
others,
and increasingly
came to be
the issue.
When,
as a genuine effort
in January
1984, the firm
agreed to meet four
grievances
[7]
by the pressure
to both parties'
the boycott
October
to tackle
satisfaction
was suspended.
relations
so, it
recognised
identified
outstanding
groups and defined
by the intermediary
It
were
was officially
UNICEF,
ended in
1984.
The Nestle
boycott
impact was claimed
was plainly
successful.
to be substantial,
to establish.
corporate
image and employee morale,
management attention
to the boycott.
economic
though this
More important
difficult
Its
is
was the impact
and the costs
Its
on
of giving
success was
25
acknowledged
as showing how corporations
account via the marketplace
similar
and it
serves as an example for
Grape Boycott
The 1965-70 California
effective
It
of labour
pesticide
misuse,
and civil
Strikes
had proved ineffective
workers
because of their
Certain
important
in its
for
grape market,
especially
the supermarkets,
with
and the relative
cities;
workers.
So great
concentration
table
in the late
effectiveness,
l,la causal
capitulation.
popular
the structure
that
for
of the
of sales
through
in ten major
of the table
was the support
unions
1960's proved to be
concentration
stability
grapes was achieved.
of farm
to the consumer
about 50% of sales
of grape sales,
rights.
most notably:
(the cause):
its
minority
American labour
meant recourse
factors
about the
and the use of
Just as the early
boycott.
and
in the organisation
mobility
strikebreaking
for
efforts
also involved
poverty,
support
previous
It
rights,
had found,
unionisation
But the case is not simply
to organise.
strikebreakers.
was both highly
achieved
farm workers when all
methods had failed.
right
grape boycott
and successful.
Californian
into
to
campaigns.
The California
all
may be called
grape farm
the union and the
an effective
The growers
boycott
were coerced
of
26
UFWOC(the United
Farm Workers Organising
was more like
although
a fledgling
pressure
group than a sectional
evident
in its
mainly
union,
having
Chicano farm workers
class
principles
and non-violent
diverse
supporters
were the public
and their
supporters,
failings
need to build
the role
popular
structure
and methods,
supporters
The growers,
by contrast,
finally
attacks
sophistication
allowing
Despite
the growers'
Given the
California.
support
for
the boycott,
The way they
of UFWOC, reflected
the union's
the alienation
but even enhanced support.
managed to lose support
Their
on picket
are appropriate
a public
was employed.
bias
violence
lines)
with
(such as
and attempts
examples of this.
relations
When
more
The case was effectively
made
but it
of the judiciary,
firm
to set
a little
the consumer choice,
the previous
these
the growers
was crucial.
they took.
involved
with
which not only avoided
of potential
for
rural
of the union organisers
every action
to unite
which served to highlight
and mobilise
up company unions
and middle
Particularly
confrontations
as representatives
they
action,
to those outside
well-documented
the
adherence to Alinskyls
direct
operated,
almost
California,
in a common struggle.
important
moral
in rural
managed, through
that
two constituencies:
Cesar Chavez was the inspirational
urban America.
leader
a promotional
This was particularly
one.
to deal with
Committee),
was too late.
the growers
27
failed
to get a ruling
although
prohibiting
they had government supporters,
not be realised
to achieve
this
And
the boycott.
legislation
could
aim because of divisions
among the growers.
The boycott
was organised
committees
operating
effective
of supporters,
Picketing
each could
boycott
They comprised
from religious
identify
and a variety
Boston Grape Party,
and secondary
with
in the major North American markets
to consumer groups,
though this
The union had to learn
selectively
and recognise
that
a
'la
such as the
ensured the effectiveness
boycotts;
and
organisations
in some way with
of events,
overnight.
different
scale,
in most North American cities.
broad coalition
causal.
on a large
of the primary
was not achieved
to target
different
the outlets
cities
demanded
approaches.
The growers
capitulated
because of the demonstrable
effectiveness
of the boycott.
Some even admitted
some markets,
grape shipments,
and hence sales,
more than a third.
vulnerability
again to resort
While the union
of their
contracts
to the boycott
the 1965-70 boycott
with
failed
the growers
success.
In
were down by
to anticipate
to consolidate
was an outstanding
this.
their
and had
gains,
the
28
CONCLUSIONS
In each of the three
their
sovereignty
concern
cases,
in corporate
to remedy, perceived
social
suggests,
in these specific
extension
of consumer sovereignty
meaning within
meaning:
earlier
role
indeed,
need, however,
of pressure
A novel
perspective
of the offering
firm
has investments
position
permitting
this
to be noted - in particular,
issue.
features
in South Africa.
is suggested
by
in the marketplace
to the more immediate
characteristics
the
the necessary
responsibility
such as product
show, other
can usefully
accurate
to the more ideological
Consumer authority
refer
an
mere technical
on consumer sovereignty
consumer boycotts.
boycotts
at least,
beyond its
groups in providing
on the social
may not simply
circumstances
The circumstances
criticised.
information
This
responsibility.
economics to a more literally
closer,
extension
They have expressed
in the marketplace.
about and attempted
shortcomings
consumers have sought to assert
characteristics
or price
but,
such as whether
Here,
as
the
a distinction
be made between the degree and the domain of
consumer sovereignty.
Formerly,
writers
on consumer sovereignty
on the degree of consumer authority
Galbraithls
work,
(see,
have concentrated
for
such as American Capitalism
example,
(1963)).
In
29
their
assessments,
competition
concern,
there
reference
is.
In looking
in contrast,
authority
is usually
at consumer boycotts,
is not so much with
the buyer has vis-a-vis
important,
but with
otherwise,
it
made to how much
the amount of
the seller,
the domain of that
the
though that
authority.
Put
is not the decree of consumer sovereignty,
much influence
the buyer has, but the jurisdiction
consumer sovereignty,
the issues
is
how
of
over which the buyer may
have influence.
Consider
a simple
example.
Consumers may choose to buy
Spanish oranges in preference
because they taste
alternatively,
better
to South African
or are cheaper.
They may,
choose to buy Spanish oranges in preference
because they do not wish to support
apartheid.
case there
there
must be consumer choice,
competition
to provide
features
colour
whether
they can express
Country
of origin,
remote sphere of its
considerations
refers
or taste
activities
operations,
can or could
of the product,
of the firm
and many other
feature
to
concern about such
concern about much wider
dubious
Whether they do or whether
instances,
must be
however,
consumers can only express
as the price,
In either
some degree of consumer sovereignty.
The domain of consumer sovereignty,
whether
oranges
in purchase
they could,
or
issues.
in some
ethical
behaviour.
in specific
depends on the domain of consumer sovereignty.
30
As an oversimplification,
willing
consumers have to be concerned,
and able for
a boycott
to know and be concerned
have to be willing
to be effective.
about the issue
to use their
They have
in question.
purchasing
on the issue.
And they must be able in the sense of being capable
transferring
to another
consumer choice.
firm's
the item altogether,
It
pressure
they can provide
encouragement
required
So, consumer boycotts
consumers exercising
that
for
dimensions:
to the jurisdiction
consumer sovereignty
also
pressure
understood
Degree refers
to producers.
authority.
of markets
two
to the amount
Domain refers
The domain of
is seen in the consumer boycott
concerns
- may be addressed.
cases
of information
By illustration,
shown how the more central
the study
as
This suggests
may be seen as having
relative
groups.
and
consumer boycotts.
to have been enhanced by the provision
concerned
information
consumer sovereignty.
of that
for
to ensure
the necessary
degree and domain.
of consumer authority
to a role
system to enhance consumer
may be usefully
consumer sovereignty
of
grape boycott
which point
While they can do little
competition,
is an
from purchase
as in the California
groups in the marketing
of
must be
where there
is refraining
is these requirements
sovereignty.
- there
(The only alternative
absence of consumer choice
case.)
product
They
by
the article
of marketing
It
has
- as
may even in
31
such a way confirm
consumer sovereignty
as the paradigm
for
the discipline.
Notes
example, Arndt
1.
See, for
2.
Baker writes
science
"The case for
is clearly
on arguing
fruitful
(1985) or Foxall
accepting
over the criteria
application
integrated
It
a good one.
elsewhere
principally
teaching
domain of marketing
profit/micro/normative,
probably
to suggest marketing
conceptual
situation
continuation
is not and (more
could be a science
if
orientation
to change.
He goes on
the
both micro/positive
does not seem likely
of this
entire
cannot be a science.l'
of this
(as
is
phenomena (macromarketing).
evidence
substance
and research
then marketing
domain includes
macro/positive
real
as Baker
As Hunt (1976) notes "If...the
importantly)
This
because of the partisan
and the likely
orientation.
to more
from both the
the case as strong
later
little
energy spent
(1983, p.32).
writing,
indicated),
as a
and ensures a more
of most marketing
conceptual
diverts
approach towards marketing
does not find
suggests,
marketing
of what is science
academics and the practitionersI
author
(1984).
and
Yet there
is
and the
However, this
32
article
3.
might be seen as a contribution
broadened conceptual
domain!
Consumer sovereignty
as the paradigm
then either
is not yet the time
Hunt's
for marketing
here advanced only by illustration.
insufficient
within
If
such a claim
this
is
is
is incorrect
or it
for the emergence of marketing's
paradigm.
4.
As Foxall
(1984) puts it
"Marketing-orientation
itself
no more than an appropriate
market
structure:
competition,
high levels
the capacity
and consumer affluence
of discretionary
supply
in a large
The adoption
of the marketing
the altruistic
acts
implied
from the recognition
concept
conditions,
a particular
that,
are by no means
textbooks:
under appropriate
form of attention
if
measure
and
by some marketing
they derive
is essential
to a given
to exceed demand
as manifested
implementation
requirements
response
of intra-industrial
for
spending.
is
the goals
to customer
of the producer
are to be achieved."
5.
Marketing
is rarely
markets.
So Barnhill
considerable
theory
effort
of markets,
predominantly
considered
to be about the study of
and Lawson (1980) comment While
has been devoted
to developing
those developments
have been
in the field
of economics.
the
There has been
33
little
development
of marketing,
state
yet markets
of being as well
function
6.
of the theory
are a central
pricing...
are viable
without
for
the
components such as buyer
None of these marketing
components
a market in which to function.It
analogous way, Lindblom
In a closely
in the field
and necessary
as a precondition
of common marketing
behaviour,
of markets
notes that
liberty
may have the form of freedom from indoctrination,
under liberal
only think
democracy men are not really
they are:
'What are people
are free
free
and consequently
the age-old
and moral rule
ridiculous
baby milk
literature
inclusion
from all
thinking
created
moral oppression,
It
from
political
is not a
not only are people
in all
societies
by leadership
- but
and a
(1977, p.265).
of free
of all
They
Union?
and deeds are free
in polyarchy
indoctrinated
they
asks:
by the economic,
- as inevitably
classI'
The limiting
stopping
Soviet
argument...
they are heavily
7.
from in the
of the exploiters'.
indoctrinated
favoured
intellectual
their
shackles
free,
ItA communist
from exploitation,
for
supplies
personal
producers,
of powdered baby milk,
gifts
to health
the revision
for mothers and health
of clear
warnings
workers
by the
of misleading
workers,
on baby milk
and the
labels
the
about
34
the hazards
feeding.
of bottle
feeding
and the benefits
of breast
35
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Andreski,
Stanislav
(1972),
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Sciences
as Sorcerv
(London, Andre Deutsch).
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Johan (1985),
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Puzzle Solving,
Baker,
'On Making Marketing
Michael
Practice
(1983),
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Barnhill,
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(first
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Vo1.49,
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Robert
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Peter
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Peter
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Kellner,
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to
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Martin,
Sherril
Gordon Wills
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Keith
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H Kennedy, Malcolm McDonald and
Marketins
'What Exactly
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is Marketing?'
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October
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with
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T F and R M Mainwaring
(London,
trade
Croom Helm).
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and
SA', The
37
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'The Nature and Scope of Marketing',
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of Marketins,
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