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llHll IIIIllIIIIlllll IIlllllllll Illlllll 1402711512 SWP 44187 CONSUMER BOYCOTTS AND CONSUMER SOVEREIGNTY DR CRAIG SMITH Cranfield School of Management Cranfield Institute of Technology Cranfield Bedford MK43 OAL (Tel: 0234 751122) Forthcoming Copyright: in European Journal of Marketing Smith 1987 ABSTRACT This paper considers how consumer boycotts as consumer behaviour. is identified as the implicit discipline. It illustration of this boycotts domain. claim the marketing to consumer boycotts the argument. an important of consumer Consumer is shown to have two dimensions: Information degree and is shown to be important role in Three case examples of the domain of consumer sovereignty play for and in explanation as consumer behaviour. support of consumer sovereignty paradigm is then applied consumer boycotts sovereignty The concept may be understood in providing and pressure this. in determining groups may Consumer boycotts States are far more prevalent than Europe - and Britain Apartheid boycott events in particular Yet for more than twenty-five 1978). Movement in Britain of South African in South Africa case, this notable boycott have stopped stocking Yet this is only towards research conducted one in four highlighting some prominence such as the Co-op, South African group's and some for example, goods(Halsal1, 1985). by the South African and other consumer boycotts issues (see Smith, on how consumer boycotts to embassy, as many as consumers may view South African There are many interesting consumer According goods. a with of a long-established tainted. focuses promoting the pressure South African indicative antipathy years the AntiMost recently, products. Stores (Vogel, has been actively has achieved successes. in the United products raised 1985). as by this This paper may be understood as consumer behaviour. The frequently circular arguments of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction favour (CS/D) analyses of an approach that consumer sovereignty. emphasises the concept This approach, examples show, can more readily issues which inspire this are eschewed in of as the three accommodate the sort form of consumer behaviour. case of It 4 seems somewhat banal to use the term consumer dissatisfaction products to refer in protest Africa at a firm's or some other Moreover, to consumer refusals involvement major political consumer sovereignty the marketing to purchase with or ethical can be usefully a paradigm for how such's paradigm may operate South issue. construed as discipline. This paper shows in reference to consumer boycotts. A PARADIGMFOR MARKETING The identification generally of a paradigm considered discipline's status or advancement. tempted to judge marketing's would be too hasty paradigm a discipline to be an important to be consensus on a paradigm this for for marketing indicator is of the There does not appear for marketing and one might be advancement accordingly. a judgement. Yet There is an implicit in the concept of consumer sovereignty. Biggadike's reasonably contributions (Biggadike, i of marketing 1981). for paradigm for marketing within marketing the entire there marketing and pessimistic but there This paradigm to satisfy of the environment of the is no unifying field management. management tries the context review is both critical He suggests paradigm that comprehensive is a llsuggests customers... and the firm's resources and objectives (the uncontrollable designing an appropriate marketing controllable to dwell on the role paradigms that It factors).l' by extending will logic In other it coherent P's paper work on merely be suggested it may be claimed may serve as the paradigm Kuhn (1970, p.lO), particular and previous It [l]. discipline. by is not the purpose of this Biggadikels consumer sovereignty marketing mix (the four of paradigms for marketing factors) words, that for the to paraphrase Thomas is the model from which springs traditions of scientific research in marketing. As it role is not the foremost for intention consumer sovereignty, proposed. This is discussed a paradigm for marketing argument. It a process observe and describe role demands a lengthy and intricate difficult outside may be largely claim As Baker has sensibly question, is a science it is probably [2]. Such logic to the debate on marketing's debate, worries futile earlier this better to the in much the about whether of the marketing discipline, may on marketing can be more forcefully paradigm. it observed to act as if applied This more recent which too may be seen as an exercise aggrandisement because it the discipline same way as marketing's to be a science. is Advancing the dominant paradigm within it such a in the next section. of stepping Finally, discipline. an alternative is epistemologically involves here to claim in the is even more 6 futile. for The issue such it surely is not whether marketing must have, but what that this will emerge if it has paradigm paradigm, a is, is not already and apparent [3]. THE CENTRALITY OF CONSUMER SOVEREIGNTYTO MARKETING The alternative view is that core of marketing thought. agreement on. Definitions consumer: "the 'marketing directed toward purveyor of a customer al, looks at the business of a customer (Drucker the company's matches its The marketing sovereignty. marketing. quoted are predicated "The marketing of business and physical (Christopher upon makes it concept from customers (McCarthy, 1975, a belief in all resources et al, and a marketing This is implicit Kotler in Boyd et in which an organisation way customers" discipline want and as a to satisfy objectivesm own human, financial the wants of its practice, is the as the flow of goods and services to consumer or user in order Hmarketing to be more emphasise the Wmarketing is the performance and accomplish p.19); view' is at the is likely of marketing utility" which direct producer This there the satisfaction 1972, p.3); activities consumer sovereignty 1980, p.3). orientation in in consumer definitions of explicit: expresses commitment to the time-honoured the company's concept in with 7 economic theory known as consumer sovereignty. The determination of what is to be produced should not be in the hands of the companies or in the hands of government but in the hands of consumers. The companies produce what the consumers want and in this their way maximise consumer welfare that (1984, pp.22-23). profits" In the teaching of marketing, the customer customer point This act of faith common sense (or rather, disussed, customer support failures for that Yet the teacher additionally, the management by appeals to and as later and reference to resulted for 'pop@ management gurus. example, Peters In and Waterman to the customerl. of marketing might alternatively, or case to the above of Very briefly, saying 'believe the customer is important'. it would Firstly, the following argument could be employed. be observed recent, present marketing is supported may come from the latest close that from the absence of a such as Sinclair's C5. Further orientation, 'stay all of the market) In Search of Excellence, implore are asked to believe more accurately, the ideology commercial students is of supreme importance: is the starting decisions. and earn that the practice a structural where supply a theoretical of marketing is relatively response to changed economic conditions exceeds demand [4]. The position would then be taken - though to some it marketing has something observed that, origins follow detailed (Bartels, The Wealth of Nations neatly discussion of this It illustrates could be has its There would then spiced markets with is an obvious Free to Choose. work. favoured economists; rich The Austrian source, but economist and an example from Human the flavour which would be taking theoretical [5]. and neo-classical Mises also has much to offer Action 1976). could be suitably so is Friedman's - that of how product from the classical Smith's markets novel has shown, marketing consideration The discussion seem quite to do with as Bartels in economics quotations might case for of the class place in the presentation a customer orientation in marketing: wThe direction of all market society a task of the entrepreneurs. Theirs is the control the helm and steer observer introducing They are at A superficial they are supreme. the captain's is the consumer" economics, that is in the But They are bound to obey unconditionally some wallowing of production. the ship. would believe they are not. After economic affairs orders. The captain (1949, p.270). in the euphoria the discussion of free might be brought the idea of mixed markets market down to earth and producer by 9 Blatant sovereignty. measure of realism Galbraith through markets to the various such as Consumer economics. and an underlying definitions example, Crosier, authority in markets. which this information the circumstances is enhanced (principally, and retailer (a lack of competition, and limits to personal that competition, wealth) there government largely is a considerable is and intervention may be covered. in many markets, under where this assessments), restricted concluded as a to degrees of consumer Finally, authority concept which abound (see, can then be defined 1975), term used to refer to and unifying of marketing technical by some to critics having been shown to be central understanding choice, would be displaced reference and to mainstream sovereignty, for ideology It will be because of degree of consumer sovereignty. So, as far wishing follow driven. as management practice to be successful on the firm of marketing and so on. firms have to They must be market - the marketing resources, what the firm the constraints environment resources of the marketing with and The is good at. management might then be understood terms of the manipulation match the firm's markets could then explore in doing this the organisation's task in competitive the wants of the customer. The next class is concerned, in mix so as to the wants of the customer 10 In such a way, consumer sovereignty central to marketing Yet acceptance which academics, to ignore. ideological likely the discipline. the recognition discipline by the does highlight as social a feature scientists, might This is the acknowledgement basis to marketing to militate sovereignty for or simply of the marketing of consumer sovereignty, marketing prefer not the paradigm of such a paradigm of the underpinning concept if can be shown to be against thought. It the recognition as the paradigm of the is a factor of consumer for marketing. IDEOLOGYAND MARKETING Ideologies for serve two purposes: and the justification briefly define of interests. ideology legitimating specific and Kellner, 1981). they provide Berger interests Berger has earlier serves in society. systematically though not always, distort come out where it so.. . The ideology social is functional of free (Berger written: when a certain interest of reality in societyM "We speak of an ideology frequently, and Kellner as Ira set of definitions vested a vested an explanation idea Very ideologies reality for enterprise in order them to do serves to to of 11 camouflage the monopolistic American corporations" The ideology model of capitalism, Lindblom, that are made acceptable function they only think the to is not This of consumers. To twist of marketing. consumers are not really capitalism; business proclaims but under the control at all, is the latent of capitalists might be tempted to observe that by an ideology powerful one of in the West, both explains and power of business society of large 1966, p.130). the interests A cynic (producers). this ideologies and justifies activities (Berger, of the competitive the most dominant capitalism practices sovereign they are [6]. a quote from under Marketing fosters belief. Ideology serves and for legitimising marketing highly as an idea structure concept convenient power - expressed claiming one's . At the base level in strategies believe and other permits corporate ways - while would see it on their behalf. acting Of course, - or, this perhaps, Corporate in the power of the consumer because this is how ideologies work. dubious that practices it the wishes of the consumer. academics speaking executives might be seen as has no power and is merely is not the way the corporations marketing Founding the interests. on consumer sovereignty the corporation in accord with both for understanding Any guilt they may have, about are a consequence of corporate power 12 or merely the recognition process. For as well also offer As Silk of managers: advance a particular themselves Machiavellian, be respected however, Insofar what is their from the 'scientific' terms. component. Bartels in the separation practitioners Is it grounds their of all, interests tolerate? seems to have a large activities, that an ideological academic discipline they should should This said how large ideological marketing's in the latter that of them in the ideological of economics and marketing surprising to an academic discipline? to disentangle has shown that falling legitimising to think Such ideologies or 'factual', discipline to world" views of the world. component can a respectable The marketing not simply and confusing place within is possible of the but to enable people is not sufficient as legitimate to be adhered to functions to a complicated It in the ideologies and Vogel write "Ideology manipulative as it interests, interest..... (1976, pp.31-32). is allayed which are likely subscribers. ideologies power, as justifying explanations, by their orient of that origins with camp (Bartels, build lie the 1976). a body of knowledge and on the most convenient they are merely serving of the consumer and are tools the best at his or her command? Yet marketing analysed is not the only discipline in this way. The other which can be management disciplines may 13 be likewise writing as Honour and Mainwaring criticised, of the "attitudes in criticism business studies lecturers and values who seem untroubled and uses of the knowledge and values Moreover, (1982). claims that interests sciences of the wielders scientific their the social gloss blessing example, Parsons' "socially of sorcery" referring legitimates underneath "much of holders (pp.172-173). of the social may well boils So, for scientific of power as explained function in the interests of power and giving by way of illustration necessary" as a discipline a pseudo- (1972, p.10). excesses by authority than manifest act to serve the study of human behaviour ideology conception as Sorcery, He argues that to the status-quo. he finds terminology, frequently on the crude realities down to an equivalent by the basis Sciences of power, putting what passes as scientific of they seek to pass on" in Social Andreski, argue when to Talcott by Lipset, which because they are This is more of a latent sciences, be a prime exponent but marketing of this, acting of producers. 'TESTING' THE IDEOLOGY To sum-up the argument so far. the paradigm thought. for marketing, However, this work is very close if is at the core of marketing constitutes component to the discipline. markets Consumer sovereignty, a major Marketing's to that ideological model of how of the free-market not 14 economists directed who espouse an idealised understanding by what may be best termed as absolute sovereignty. Such a model is easily world are considered; markets competition may be limited, and, accordingly, evident. a large as a technical understanding marketing thought. Of course, competitive markets customer, at least of markets as a dictate acknowledge even in highly interest It might market firms the wants of the is concerned with exchange. the study of producers, should sovereignty, Does it not have an than as a group to which the marketing be observed in conflict in management. markets. is not a zero-sum game. beneficial to much current some measure of producer point from to marketing is done (by manipulating at this basis the interests competitive are not inevitably mutually that in consumers other something The absence of stands that have to follow and not just to degrees of of consumers1 status still But an academic discipline sovereignty to producers. the ideological the conclusion restricted is more accurately term referring this indicates where degree of producer relative marketing when real consumer information consumer authority more accurate consumer displaced mixed markets, So consumer sovereignty understood surely of markets that mix)? the game of the That consumers and producers and markets provide This is neatly for illustrated in 15 the following quote from Thomas A. Murphy, as Chairman of General Motors: 11 . . . competitive markets could be relied and free consumer choice on to set an economic course whch The individual would maximise human welfare... citizen has great consumption capacity patterns through does not like one product, several possibilities other This sensitive to modify of productive free markets, our system. Each consumer, given his can purchase those products the political economic of people, is a fundamental, under-appreciated his own special resources preferences though often suit he - or none at all... tailoring through If free markets. he can choose any of to the complex and diverse expressed his characteristic of free choice, which he feels most Unlike needs and resources. every person can win in an system, 1election'1' (in Silk and Vogel, coincidence of interests 1976, p.91). However, this perfect. Consumers can have different producers and particularly responsibility in business. consumer boycotts boycotts, on issues are of great consumers are, This, is not always interests to of social of course, interest. to use Murphy's is where In consumer analogy, employing 16 their purchase votes They are voting producers. which they disapprove other words, express against by not buying of interest to business practices of a firm's product. In consumer sovereignty to about and perhaps change undesirable by producers. candidate a difference they are exercising concern activities this to express The prospective U.S. presidential Jesse Jackson has used consumer sovereignty way in his campaigns for civil rights. in He has observed: 'IWe have the power, nonviolently, controlling direction people cities Motors, you will not sell but to comply" (quoted it', in 1978, p.39). which illustrate earlier discussion context in which they may be considered, to this paper emphasises. 'test' us a here next year and help us finance Three case examples follow extent black cars in the you guarantee GM would have no choice Vogel, If the said simultaneously, community unless franchise by to determine of the American economy. in thirty 'General black our appetites, just of consumer sovereignty Moreover, the ideology. in some circumstances this. 'reality' provides The the as the conclusion the cases to some Or, rather, they point may closely out that conform to the 17 ideology, that consumer sovereignty These circumstances are later The cases are presented available the boycott South Africa, marketing Barclays identified. elsewhere of Barclays (Smith, over its the international of baby milk Californian extensive. here in a summary form, in more detail describe may be quite boycott to the the Third grape boycott but they are They 1985). involvement of Nestle World, with over its and the over union recognition. and South Africa Apartheid in South Africa is an emotive issue. It is purportedly a system whereby the many races of South Africa may coexist securely and separately, Yet many would argue that advancing separate exploitation of consumer the black on other as well, and is frequently links Involvement responsibility function fronts with ideology the economic There are probably over South Africa than any other but equal. a racist to maintain majority. in Britain boycotts investment, having is in effect development system of apartheid attacked it different particularly criticised and its Business issue. more has been by ethical in the press for South Africa. in South Africa in business. of apartheid is a major issue of social This is because of the economic and the role of business in 18 maintaining and benefiting economic progress blacks will Congress various external sanctions. governments of this is argued that the incorporation is rejected happening. of control (ANC) with It but this evidence is the armed seizure for necessitate and end apartheid, who see little from it. Their applied and business have largely engagement to protect South Africa is dependent on Western capital and trade. Direct because of criticism their investment and investment States - is thereby and the maintenance as the trade with materials South Africa This is aside military significance economic, committed involves political use of effective West unlikely. economic interests to the stability raw is the major source of as a bastion and strategic Business, of particularly strategic from the country's international an and the United of apartheid, for which South Africa SUPPlY. by indirect involves So the West - and Britain South Africa in the form of has declined interdependence. especially the pressure interests. but has been replaced Yet trade Western economy, advocating constructive investment. in the form of resisted in the South African solution National While condemning apartheid, disinvolvement investment by critics by the African pressure of the against political communism. interdependence economic sanctions in turn, and so follows and makes the by the wishes to defend the government This its line. 19 of international The use, or otherwise, against South Africa against business boycotts trade is closely involvement and investment in South Africa on Western for economic token gestures unrest in South Africa, has only been the UN arms embargo and the OPEC oil Four principal boycott. sanctions: the costs to above; that arguments are advanced against for those imposing effectiveness, particularly historically then why oppose them?); The latter change from within, this, conduct corporate there is some support and, finally, constructive for is prescribed see little working, evidence and particularly come to be seen as tacit substantial international These are criticism black challenged support the recent for at living apartheid. of constructive with by codes of codes. they may have raised and In accordance comply to deflect they have not really standards, 'bridge-building' is the most prominent. involvement for this, measures are employed (but argument, but many firms home, and although most, but then it doubts as to their such as the EEC and Sullivan voluntary Critics suffering: when countervailing engagement. them, as referred they would harm the blacks is said they are already with and and consumer reliance from the more recent made in response to the continued there to the case for has led to many calls Yet apart santions. tied South Africa's over this. economic sanctions engagement unrest, With apartheid. economic sanctions it not has . 20 many consumers have chosen to support forthcoming, consumer boycott moral act, an expression preferences The consumer boycott campaign. by the individual a sanction on the issue, to act. It aggregate of pressure change. The revitalised successes, retail authorities. known consumer boycott, The trend Africa towards has singled British there streets. Barclays constructive with branches defend their disproportionately small of some improvement. dismiss, for apartheid is cosmetic Loans to South Africa public opinion this by promoting claimed, the local All the major has a on most British high with and all whether the they have a employees, critics by firms authority is accept but or So the pressure group End "moral, and economic pressure" from South Africa the boycott. there constructive (ELTSA) puts what they call type pressure bank to withdraw in South because of This their changes. Bank. vulnerable Although continues engagement seems to achieve, governments, attack. number of black evidence some The most well- involvement engagement argument. with but Barclays and is particularly high visibility, especially forms of investment out the banks for as boycott is of Barclays banks lend to South Africa, subsidiary its of course, indirect or her also adds to the campaign has had some recent and the local as a by the individual is not prepared outlets is, of his the state for a and cease loans. Many account closures on the They do are and church groups who close 21 their accounts despite limited impact costs bring resources. is minimal Yet the pressure dirty from closing of investment Barclays respond to their to present and investment peaceful down. criticism loss, hurts. case. They note that While little business It recent but if (1985) end to its public weren't constructive again, of a bank cannot simply rather this played a part the in what from economic conditions interpretation majority in themselves close than economic step in a phased withdrawal of Barclays shareholding sufficient. is correct, even if its Of course, engagement may become a plausible in which case the withdrawal reversed. "economic instruments then ELTSA may prove to have been successful efforts relations They suggest No doubt deteriorating were paramount, to the is said to have been lost, which is best seen as having South Africa. with is perhaps this, appears to be the first the bank 'Ia from South Africa. are the only viable change." economic in South Africa. criticism their is the gap between the name," they say, and contributed on the bank to withdraw ties and this group have succeeded in getting pressure activities publicity, But ELTSA accept their and far and benefits fairly much valuable argument may be halted or even own 22 Nestle and the Marketina 'Commerciogenic marketing malnutrition' of the baby milk largest curtail their groups. to the launch the issue of infant more than fifteen brought and involved of the boycott, mortality the case against of the firm's they similarly Food Industries But this was attention groups in an of infant Nestle, for which the firm the International (ICIFI), the industry's took judgement, including Other A token attempt made via that a libel by the judge. condemned. ignored a pamphlet adverse publicity practices so inadequate largely from baby milk group published and succeeded in getting was ten years marketing Nestle resulting but at the cost of considerable regulation to World. outlining critics action to their the pressure the firm's One Swiss pressure criticism years This ended most of the marketing misuse. them to court around and one of the For the latter excesses. commission monitoring in the Third with and take appropriate were forcibly of concern formula Prior marketing deficiencies practices this World in took Nestle, market worldwide and accept by pressure audit It marketing food companies in the world, to realise their but its circumstances. to the Third not the consequence of the was of a bad product, inappropriate half of Babv Milk Council at selfof Infant representative the Protein-Calorie body. Advisory 23 Group, a UN agency, refused to act independently industry's critics consumer boycott Nestle were far acting against recognition of this hold a hearing pressure achieved Nestle of baby milk, at the hearing, groups as a threat recognising public pressure widespread opinion indisputably to free position using public When the World Health Nestle found, were directly restrictions enterprise. attempts WHOofficials came to light, article group monitoring it, the firm However, it did not defend activities. (WHO) became involved, that marketing surreptitious a pro-Nestle Finally as the concerned pressure participating, on their relations Nestle's groups they could not avoid practices. to influence this as did their in Fortune, by the to more effectively Organisation particularly established to attack chose to respond less antagonistically. its Kennedy to the problems was going against address the issue but attempted group public ignored and tried but Formula when they persuaded Senator on the issue. in the marketing many experts The Infant (INFACT), the principal Nestle, States. was the market leader intransigence. The so in 1977 the in the United because it left on the issue. from satisfied, was launched also because of its Coalition and one firm and more effectively was the target Action to endorse it Their by trying role more to co-opt in organising and were to no avail. (and others') activities The in the 24 Third World, the International (IBF=J) t continued the firm gave its convince its with Baby Food Action to identify support critics intentions The pressure the issue. code was enforced Yet when, in 1981, abuses. to the WHOcode, it of its could not to seriously deal groups wanted to be sure the and used the boycott were even made to increase Network to this the international Efforts end. scope of the boycott. In 1982, Nestle announced that its accordance with WHOguidelines and that to be monitored by the Nestle Commission critics (NIFAC), dismissed exercise, an independent this but for Infant policy was then in its practices Formula Audit body. Many of the firm's as no more than a public others, and increasingly came to be the issue. When, as a genuine effort in January 1984, the firm agreed to meet four grievances [7] by the pressure to both parties' the boycott October to tackle satisfaction was suspended. relations so, it recognised identified outstanding groups and defined by the intermediary It were was officially UNICEF, ended in 1984. The Nestle boycott impact was claimed was plainly successful. to be substantial, to establish. corporate image and employee morale, management attention to the boycott. economic though this More important difficult Its is was the impact and the costs Its on of giving success was 25 acknowledged as showing how corporations account via the marketplace similar and it serves as an example for Grape Boycott The 1965-70 California effective It of labour pesticide misuse, and civil Strikes had proved ineffective workers because of their Certain important in its for grape market, especially the supermarkets, with and the relative cities; workers. So great concentration table in the late effectiveness, l,la causal capitulation. popular the structure that for of the of sales through in ten major of the table was the support unions 1960's proved to be concentration stability grapes was achieved. of farm to the consumer about 50% of sales of grape sales, rights. most notably: (the cause): its minority American labour meant recourse factors about the and the use of Just as the early boycott. and in the organisation mobility strikebreaking for efforts also involved poverty, support previous It rights, had found, unionisation But the case is not simply to organise. strikebreakers. was both highly achieved farm workers when all methods had failed. right grape boycott and successful. Californian into to campaigns. The California all may be called grape farm the union and the an effective The growers boycott were coerced of 26 UFWOC(the United Farm Workers Organising was more like although a fledgling pressure group than a sectional evident in its mainly union, having Chicano farm workers class principles and non-violent diverse supporters were the public and their supporters, failings need to build the role popular structure and methods, supporters The growers, by contrast, finally attacks sophistication allowing Despite the growers' Given the California. support for the boycott, The way they of UFWOC, reflected the union's the alienation but even enhanced support. managed to lose support Their on picket are appropriate a public was employed. bias violence lines) with (such as and attempts examples of this. relations When more The case was effectively made but it of the judiciary, firm to set a little the consumer choice, the previous these the growers was crucial. they took. involved with which not only avoided of potential for rural of the union organisers every action to unite which served to highlight and mobilise up company unions and middle Particularly confrontations as representatives they action, to those outside well-documented the adherence to Alinskyls direct operated, almost California, in a common struggle. important moral in rural managed, through that two constituencies: Cesar Chavez was the inspirational urban America. leader a promotional This was particularly one. to deal with Committee), was too late. the growers 27 failed to get a ruling although prohibiting they had government supporters, not be realised to achieve this And the boycott. legislation could aim because of divisions among the growers. The boycott was organised committees operating effective of supporters, Picketing each could boycott They comprised from religious identify and a variety Boston Grape Party, and secondary with in the major North American markets to consumer groups, though this The union had to learn selectively and recognise that a 'la such as the ensured the effectiveness boycotts; and organisations in some way with of events, overnight. different scale, in most North American cities. broad coalition causal. on a large of the primary was not achieved to target different the outlets cities demanded approaches. The growers capitulated because of the demonstrable effectiveness of the boycott. Some even admitted some markets, grape shipments, and hence sales, more than a third. vulnerability again to resort While the union of their contracts to the boycott the 1965-70 boycott with failed the growers success. In were down by to anticipate to consolidate was an outstanding this. their and had gains, the 28 CONCLUSIONS In each of the three their sovereignty concern cases, in corporate to remedy, perceived social suggests, in these specific extension of consumer sovereignty meaning within meaning: earlier role indeed, need, however, of pressure A novel perspective of the offering firm has investments position permitting this to be noted - in particular, issue. features in South Africa. is suggested by in the marketplace to the more immediate characteristics the the necessary responsibility such as product show, other can usefully accurate to the more ideological Consumer authority refer an mere technical on consumer sovereignty consumer boycotts. boycotts at least, beyond its groups in providing on the social may not simply circumstances The circumstances criticised. information This responsibility. economics to a more literally closer, extension They have expressed in the marketplace. about and attempted shortcomings consumers have sought to assert characteristics or price but, such as whether Here, as the a distinction be made between the degree and the domain of consumer sovereignty. Formerly, writers on consumer sovereignty on the degree of consumer authority Galbraithls work, (see, have concentrated for such as American Capitalism example, (1963)). In 29 their assessments, competition concern, there reference is. In looking in contrast, authority is usually at consumer boycotts, is not so much with the buyer has vis-a-vis important, but with otherwise, it made to how much the amount of the seller, the domain of that the though that authority. Put is not the decree of consumer sovereignty, much influence the buyer has, but the jurisdiction consumer sovereignty, the issues is how of over which the buyer may have influence. Consider a simple example. Consumers may choose to buy Spanish oranges in preference because they taste alternatively, better to South African or are cheaper. They may, choose to buy Spanish oranges in preference because they do not wish to support apartheid. case there there must be consumer choice, competition to provide features colour whether they can express Country of origin, remote sphere of its considerations refers or taste activities operations, can or could of the product, of the firm and many other feature to concern about such concern about much wider dubious Whether they do or whether instances, must be however, consumers can only express as the price, In either some degree of consumer sovereignty. The domain of consumer sovereignty, whether oranges in purchase they could, or issues. in some ethical behaviour. in specific depends on the domain of consumer sovereignty. 30 As an oversimplification, willing consumers have to be concerned, and able for a boycott to know and be concerned have to be willing to be effective. about the issue to use their They have in question. purchasing on the issue. And they must be able in the sense of being capable transferring to another consumer choice. firm's the item altogether, It pressure they can provide encouragement required So, consumer boycotts consumers exercising that for dimensions: to the jurisdiction consumer sovereignty also pressure understood Degree refers to producers. authority. of markets two to the amount Domain refers The domain of is seen in the consumer boycott concerns - may be addressed. cases of information By illustration, shown how the more central the study as This suggests may be seen as having relative groups. and consumer boycotts. to have been enhanced by the provision concerned information consumer sovereignty. of that for to ensure the necessary degree and domain. of consumer authority to a role system to enhance consumer may be usefully consumer sovereignty of grape boycott which point While they can do little competition, is an from purchase as in the California groups in the marketing of must be where there is refraining is these requirements sovereignty. - there (The only alternative absence of consumer choice case.) product They by the article of marketing It has - as may even in 31 such a way confirm consumer sovereignty as the paradigm for the discipline. Notes example, Arndt 1. See, for 2. Baker writes science "The case for is clearly on arguing fruitful (1985) or Foxall accepting over the criteria application integrated It a good one. elsewhere principally teaching domain of marketing profit/micro/normative, probably to suggest marketing conceptual situation continuation is not and (more could be a science if orientation to change. He goes on the both micro/positive does not seem likely of this entire cannot be a science.l' of this (as is phenomena (macromarketing). evidence substance and research then marketing domain includes macro/positive real as Baker As Hunt (1976) notes "If...the importantly) This because of the partisan and the likely orientation. to more from both the the case as strong later little energy spent (1983, p.32). writing, indicated), as a and ensures a more of most marketing conceptual diverts approach towards marketing does not find suggests, marketing of what is science academics and the practitionersI author (1984). and Yet there is and the However, this 32 article 3. might be seen as a contribution broadened conceptual domain! Consumer sovereignty as the paradigm then either is not yet the time Hunt's for marketing here advanced only by illustration. insufficient within If such a claim this is is is incorrect or it for the emergence of marketing's paradigm. 4. As Foxall (1984) puts it "Marketing-orientation itself no more than an appropriate market structure: competition, high levels the capacity and consumer affluence of discretionary supply in a large The adoption of the marketing the altruistic acts implied from the recognition concept conditions, a particular that, are by no means textbooks: under appropriate form of attention if measure and by some marketing they derive is essential to a given to exceed demand as manifested implementation requirements response of intra-industrial for spending. is the goals to customer of the producer are to be achieved." 5. Marketing is rarely markets. So Barnhill considerable theory effort of markets, predominantly considered to be about the study of and Lawson (1980) comment While has been devoted to developing those developments have been in the field of economics. the There has been 33 little development of marketing, state yet markets of being as well function 6. of the theory are a central pricing... are viable without for the components such as buyer None of these marketing components a market in which to function.It analogous way, Lindblom In a closely in the field and necessary as a precondition of common marketing behaviour, of markets notes that liberty may have the form of freedom from indoctrination, under liberal only think democracy men are not really they are: 'What are people are free free and consequently the age-old and moral rule ridiculous baby milk literature inclusion from all thinking created moral oppression, It from political is not a not only are people in all societies by leadership - but and a (1977, p.265). of free of all They Union? and deeds are free in polyarchy indoctrinated they asks: by the economic, - as inevitably classI' The limiting stopping Soviet argument... they are heavily 7. from in the of the exploiters'. indoctrinated favoured intellectual their shackles free, ItA communist from exploitation, for supplies personal producers, of powdered baby milk, gifts to health the revision for mothers and health of clear warnings workers by the of misleading workers, on baby milk and the labels the about 34 the hazards feeding. of bottle feeding and the benefits of breast 35 Bibliosranhv Andreski, Stanislav (1972), Social Sciences as Sorcerv (London, Andre Deutsch). 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