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Roman Empire What happened in CDLXXVI What did the tortoise teach the Romans? Why the LONG FACE, Senator? ? Quid novi? Translation: “What’s new?” IN PARTNERSHIP WITH Roman_Empire_FC.indd 1 3/13/17 11:01 AM II (2) The Empire Begins and leopatra s eet in a sea attle at c tium, in Greece. Soon after that victory, Octavian became The assassination of Roman ruler Julius Caesar in 44 BCE led to civil war. Over the the sole ruler of Rome. He took the name Augustus Caesar and the title princeps next 13 years, the Roman world suffered first one . he oman ep lic was from an ongoing struggle among political over. But because Augustus was both rivals. Those battling for power included strong and wise, he won widespread s p Caesar’s adoptive son Octavian and Marc Antony, who had served as a general under port. Augustus reigned until his death in 14 CE. The empire he established would Caesar. Antony eventually allied himself with Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen. But in last for hundreds of years. 31 BCE, Octavian’s forces defeated Antony RULERS THE FORUM WAS Rome’s main political, religious, and business center. Built on flat ground surrounded by the city’s hills, the forum was home to many important temples, monuments, and public buildings. The Roman senate met there, in a building called the Curia. Roman_Empire_2-3.indd 2 l AUGUSTUS Caesar, Rome’s first emperor, restored peace to Rome. l CALIGULA WAS cruel. Some say he wanted his horse to be an official! l NERO IS REMEMbered as the ruler who played his fiddle while Rome burned. 3/13/17 11:25 AM III (3) l UNDER AUGUSTUS’S leadership, the empire grew and prospered. By the end of his reign, Rome controlled lands in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Augustus helped unify this diverse empire by granting citizenship to free men in the provinces. He also made taxation fairer and tried to improve the lives of the poor. l TRAJAN, A kind emperor, encouraged education and the arts. Roman_Empire_2-3.indd 3 l AUGUSTUS’S REIGN marked the beginning of the Pax Romana (Roman Peace). For about 200 years, the entire Mediterranean world remained remarkably calm under Rome’s protection. Many provinces were allowed to govern themselves, but they had to pay taxes to Rome and submit to the Roman army’s control. The Pax Romana ended during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE). Marcus (left) faced revolts and invasions at the empire’s borders in Syria, Germany, Britain, and elsewhere. TODAY l HADRIAN WAS A great emperor. His architects built many magnificent buildings. l MARCUS AURELIUS, last emperor of the Pax Romana, campaigned against the barbarians. l CONSTANTINE made Constantinople the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. 3/13/17 11:25 AM IV (4) Trade and Money The emperor Augustus believed that building a network of roads across the empire was vital, not only for conquests and defense but – just as important – for trade. The wealth that trade created allowed Roman c lt re to o rish. Besides roads, the Mediterranean Sea and the empire’s major rivers served as essential trade routes. Ships carried millions of sacks of grain from Egypt to Rome each year. Each province of the empire produced its own exports. For example, Spain exported olive oil to other provinces. The Romans traded far beyond their empire – with China, India, Persia, and non-Roman Africa. Silk cloth was a key import from China. Asian and African traders introduced the Romans to new spices. Pepper from India became a Roman favorite for cooking. Romans also used spices to make medicines, cosmetics, and perfumes. u THE ROMANS HAD learned about the use of coins from the Greeks. But it was not until 23 or 24 BCE that Augustus established a standard currency, or money, for the whole empire. He set a Roman_Empire_4-5_v2.indd 4 value for each kind of coin so that traders across the empire could use the same money. Coins were made of gold, silver, bronze, and copper. Julius Caesar had issued coins stamped with his Roman Trade Network in 180 CE Roman Empire BRITAIN Internal Trade Route External Trade Route GERMANY Londinium GAUL (FRANCE) A T L A N T I C O C E A N Lugdunum Arelate Sirmium Rome Barcino Thessalonica SPAIN GREECE Carthage Leptis Magna N W portrait. Augustus and the emperors who followed him continued this practice. Most Roman coins display the image of the emperor who ruled at the time they were minted. E S Alexandria AFRICA EGYPT l MATERIAL GOODS weren’t the only things traded throughout the Roman Empire. There was also a busy trade in ideas and beliefs. The Romans spread their state religion across the lands they conquered. But the religions of the conquered peoples also made their way to Rome. Some Romans worshipped gods like Mithras (left), from Persia, and Isis, from Egypt. Greek philosophy also appealed to many Romans, who adopted the ways of living recommended by Greek thinkers. 3/13/17 11:04 AM By M V (5) r THE ROMANS were master roadbuilders. Over centuries, they constructed 50,000 miles of roads linking all parts of the empire. Their roads were higher in the middle and lower at the sides so that rainwater would drain into ditches. The roads were so well made that stretches of Roman road still exist today in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. mium Thessalonica Byzantium ASIA MINOR GREECE Trapezus Antiocha Alexandria EGYPT Tyrus ARABIA u TRADE BETWEEN the Roman Empire and the far-off land of China was made possible by the Silk Road. The Silk Road was a 4,000-mile path across central Asia. Teams of merchants and their animals – camels, donkeys, and horses – transported Roman_Empire_4-5_v2.indd 5 goods back and forth along it. They brought silk from China to the West and wool, gold, and silver from the Roman Empire to China. Trade along this route reached its height in about 200 CE, during China’s Han dynasty. u WHEREVER THEY went, the Roman armies built forts. Some of these military outposts developed into cities that were modeled on Rome itself. Like the empire’s capital, they had their own forums, markets, bathhouses, theaters, and arenas. The city of London, England, originated as a Roman city called Londinium. So did Lyon, France; its ancient Roman name was Lugdunum. 3/13/17 11:04 AM VI (6) The Roman Army The Roman Empire’s power came from its well-trained army. Roman soldiers made conquest possible. Once lands were captured, troops kept conquered peoples under control and protected the empire’s borders. Roman soldiers were busy. hen the weren t fighting, the were ilding orts and ridges, s per ising mines and arries, or making road repairs. On many days the hiked miles carr ing 60-pound packs. s emperor, g st s en acted dramatic reforms, or changes, to ome s arm . He cut its size in half and organi ed it into militar nits called legions, each with a few thousand soldiers. or training and fight ing, each legion was split in to smaller gro ps, called centuries, of about 100 men each. Their commanders were called centurions. ring the time o the re public, soldiers had been paid not with money, but with al a les taken rom the people they conquered. g st s changed this, too. e ga e soldiers reg lar pa and created a retirement program or them. eca se of these reforms, more men made the army a career. The army became more professional – and more loyal to Rome than to any one army leader. Roman_Empire_6-7.indd 6 A PLATE OF ARMOR made of metal strips tied together with leather straps protected the upper body. Although this metal jacket was heavy, the metal strips allowed the soldier some freedom of movement. Soldiers had to help each other put on and lace up their armor. UNDER HIS METAL jacket, the soldier wore a tunic of wool. SOLDIERS CARRIED metal-tipped throwing spears, daggers, and short, doubleedged swords. THIS BELT, OR APRON, of leather strips protected the lower body. Heavy weights on the bottom of each strip kept the apron in place. THE SOLDIER’S heavy sandals were studded with nails. 3/13/17 11:06 AM VII (7) CENTURIONS AND other commanding officers wore crests on their helmets so their soldiers could spot them easily in battle. The helmet covered and protected the head without blocking vision. Flaps protected the cheeks and neck. r WHEN ATTACKING a city, Roman soldiers sometimes linked their shields above their heads in what they called the testudo, or tortoise. The shields protected them from the stones and missiles hurled by their enemies. It made a roof so strong that other soldiers could walk over it. CENTURIONS WORE red tunics under their armor. THE SOLDIER’S rectangular shield was made of many layers of thick wood wrapped in leather, with an iron rim at the top and bottom. The soldier’s heavy pack held his personal gear, enough grain for about 15 days, cooking utensils, the stakes needed to build a camp, and a pick, an ax, or a saw. Roman_Empire_6-7.indd 7 u THE SIGHT OF A huge battering ram struck fear in the hearts of Rome’s enemies. Mounted on a wheeled platform, the ram pounded against the walls and gates of a city or fort until they splintered. Then the Roman army surged in. r THE ROMANS called this giant slingshot a ballista. It fired heavy rocks over 1,200 feet. d CATAPULTS SENT spears soaring into the enemy’s camp. Sometimes burning rags were attached to the tips of the spears. CENTURIONS GAINED extra protection from these metal leg shields called greaves. 3/13/17 11:06 AM VIII (8) The Life of the Poor In ancient Rome, there were great differences between the lives of rich and poor people. The poor lived in the dirtiest, noisiest, most crowded parts of the city. Their houses were poorly constructed four- and fi e stor apartment ildings that usually lacked heat, water, and kitchens. The rooms of the poor had little furniture – perhaps only a chair or stool and a bed. Few poor children learned to read or write. This lack of education among the majority of Romans was one of the empire’s great weaknesses. SHORTLY AFTER BIRTH, a new baby was placed at its father’s feet. The baby was not accepted into the family until the father picked up and held his newborn child. BECAUSE THEIR apartments had no kitchens, the poor ate cooked meats and other hot food at stalls, or they bought cooked food to bring home. Some people cooked on small stoves in the street. ENSLAVED PEOPLE, like the young boy getting water, were poorest of all. Many people captured in battle during Roman conquests were forced into slavery. The Roman Empire’s dependence on slavery was another of its weaknesses. IN THE STREETS, children pushed hoops, flew kites, and played games like blind man’s buff. Roman_Empire_8-9.indd 8 3/13/17 11:09 AM IX (9) BY THE FIRST century CE, Rome had over 45,000 blocks of apartment buildings. Living in these tall, narrow buildings was often dangerous. Most were so poorly made that sooner or later they collapsed. Walls cracked or roofs fell in, and fire was a constant danger. WALKING DOWN A Roman street could be messy, because apartment dwellers tossed all kinds of garbage out of their windows. u WHEN BABIES were nine days old, they received this charm, called a bulla, which was worn around the neck to chase away evil spirits. u LIKE CHILDREN today, Roman children loved to play with dolls. This wooden doll has movable arms and legs. FEW PEOPLE HAD A PRIVATE water supply or indoor plumbing. Water was collected from public fountains. But the very rich had water piped directly into their homes. Roman_Empire_8-9.indd 9 3/13/17 11:09 AM I T A I N R B IC O A CE IN E GER M A N Y N G A U L (FRANCE) LA N T LONDINIUM RH AT LUGDUNUM RAVENNA CORSICA ROME SPAIN TINGIS SARDINIA M TE I D E IT RRANEAN SEA SICILY CARTHAGE MA T URE ANIA S a h a r a Roman_Empire_10-11.indd 10 D e s e r t NUM ID IA AFRICA 3/13/17 11:12 AM an (right), Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius – were capable, tolerant, generous, and wise. They faced problems, including plagues and invasions. But they successfully defended and even expanded the empire’s borders. During their reigns, the Roman Empire grew to its largest size. Some Roman emperors were bad at the job. Some were just ineffective – they couldn’t get things done. A few, like Caligula and Nero, were selfish and corrupt, or evil. But for a period lasting from 96 CE to 180 CE, the empire prospered under the rule of five effective emperors in a row. These emperors – Nerva, Trajan, Hadri- Y SAR MATIA DA VENNA C IA D a n u b e K C A L B M ICU R Y L IL SEA BYZANTIUM D CE MA ITALY A S I A O M I N O R N IA ICILY ATHENS S Y R I A TYRE CYRENE Roman_Empire_10-11.indd 11 AICA E G Y P T e N i l CY N RE ALEXANDRIA U D E A G R E E C E J N Five Good Emperors 3/13/17 11:12 AM XII (12) The Life of the Rich INSIDE A WEALTHY Roman’s home was a series of rooms built around a central courtyard, called an atrium. The home might have a garden, a dining room, several bedrooms, and a kitchen, where enslaved servants did the cooking. l IN THE ROMAN Empire, only men could be citizens. Both rich and poor citizens were entitled to wear the toga, a wide square or rectangle of cloth draped over one shoulder and carefully wrapped around the body. However, few poor people could afford togas. Rich Romans lived, dressed, and even ate differently from the poor. In the city, they built their houses far from the noisy, narrow streets of the poor. From the outside their homes often looked plain. Inside they were costl and com orta le, filled with Roman_Empire_12-13.indd 12 l SOME WOMEN, rich and poor alike, wore a robe called a stola. Wealthy women wore stolas of lin- en. Some draped a long scarf over the stola to protect their hair when they went outdoors. furniture made of bronze, ivory, and rare wood. Walls were decorated with brightly painted murals. Homes had courtyards, pools, and gardens. Many wealthy Romans also had huge country estates called villas. Only the children of the rich got a formal 3/13/17 11:14 AM XIII (13) l INSTEAD OF carpets, the rich decorated their floors with beautiful mosaics. Mosaics are pictures or designs made up of several thousand tiny pieces of colored stone laid in wet plaster. u SCHOOLS WERE mostly single rooms with classes taught by teachers who often were Greek. Punishment for misbehaving was severe. Children wrote on wax tablets with a stylus (a pointed metal pen). To erase a mistake, the pupil simply rubbed it out and smoothed the wax with the flat end of the stylus. l MEN AND WOMEN curled their hair with curling tongs. The Romans considered pale skin beautiful, so women put powdered chalk on their faces and arms. l MOST ROMAN girls married in their teens. On her wedding day, the bride wore a special white robe, a circle of flowers on her head, and a bright orange veil. education. They started school at about age , and most le t age . irls fin ished their schooling before boys and prepared for marriage. Some boys continued their education and became the empire’s leading citizens. Many wealthy citizens Roman_Empire_12-13.indd 13 WEALTHY ROMAN S liked parties an d often held long , fancy dinners at home. They liked rich, exot ic foods. Guests might enjoy ostrich, jellyfis h, flamingo, mouse , sea urchins an d other delicacie s. Enslaved peop le made the food and served it to the diners. were civic-minded. They spent their own money to construct public buildings and fund entertainments for the whole city. Some, however, were corrupt, and rich Romans’ dependence on slave labor played a part in Rome’s decline. 3/13/17 11:14 AM XIV (14) The Romans at Play Today, if you and your family want to have fun, you might go to the movies, play in a park, or watch a ball game. When Romans wanted to amuse themselves, they also chose from an array of activities. In ancient times, Romans went to public bathhouses to talk, gossip, and even make business deals. For an evening out, wealthy people might go to a concert. The Romans had learned about theater from the Greeks, and Greek plays were popular. Poor people could choose from chariot races or the bloody fights known as gladiator games. Emperors and other powerful public leaders paid for these entertainments to win the support of the people. Politicians used the contests to help the poor forget their troubles. At a chariot race or gladiator fight, the crowds expressed their frustrations by yelling at the players instead of at their leaders. TODAY Roman_Empire_14-15.indd 14 u THE PUBLIC BATHS were a great place to get clean and catch up on the latest news. Men and women went to separate bathhouses. Bathers had several choices for their bath temperature, from icy cold to steaming hot. Public baths were huge complexes that included a gym for exercising and lifting weights, a library for reading, and gardens to stroll through. r SPECTATORS packed the Colosseum for the gladiator games. Hidden elevators and trapdoors allowed animals and men to make exciting surprise entrances and exits. Archers armed with bows and arrows stood on the top level of the building, ready to shoot any wild animal that escaped. Which American sports do you think Romans would enjoy watching? Why? d THE COLOSSEUM was the largest arena in the empire. Even today it is one of Rome’s most impressive buildings. The columns on the outside are for decoration only. Arches do the real work of supporting the weight of the building. 3/13/17 11:19 AM XV (15) l SOMETIMES THE Colosseum floor was flooded so that gladiators could take part in “sea battles.” Crocodiles swam around the small ships in which the gladiators fought, ready to gobble up anyone who fell overboard. u AT THE RACEcourse known as the Circus Maximus, fans bet on their favorite teams at all-day chariot races. Bettors put their money on one of four teams: the Whites, Greens, Blues, or Reds. u BLOODY GLADIATOR contests attracted huge crowds. Spectators cheered as the gladiators fought lions, tigers, or each other to the death. Some gladiators were convicted criminals. Others were enslaved people who might win their freedom if they pleased the crowd. Audiences would give an especially brave gladiator the thumbsup sign. Thumbs down meant “Let this one die.” u CHARIOT RACING could be a deadly sport. The lightweight chariots tipped over easily. Riders often fell from their chariots and were trampled to death. Like the sports u SOAP DID NOT exist in Roman times, but bathers put olive oil on their skin, then wiped off both oil and dirt with special scrapers called strigili. stars and musicians of today, some charioteers became crowd favorites and earned huge amounts of gold. Most charioteers were enslaved men. Some Romans, like the historian Tacitus, objected to gladiator contests and other forms of entertainment. He condemned “the mania for gladiatorial shows and horse-racing.”* He thought such shows interfered with young people’s education. Do you think that spending time watching sports can be harmful? Why or why not? *Cornelius Tacitus. From The Annals, translated by Alfred Church and William Brodribb. Macmillan, 1900. Roman_Empire_14-15.indd 15 3/13/17 11:19 AM XVI (16) The End of the Empire l THE HUNS LIVED in central Asia. The Romans hated them, thinking their nomadic lifestyle was uncivilized. But the Huns were far from uncivilized. They were excellent metalworkers, farmers, and warriors. Around 370 CE, the Huns began invading the Roman Empire, helping cause its final collapse. u THE FALL OF ROME changed the map. Barbarian tribes like the Franks turned Gaul into Roman_Empire_16-17.indd 16 France, and the Angles and Saxons turned Roman Britain into Saxon England. 3/13/17 11:20 AM XVII (17) For centuries after the rule o its first emperor, eg n in 27 BCE, the oman m pire was the most power l state in the ancient world. t eginning in the rd century CE, fierce tri es o people the omans called ar arians in aded the em pire. o the omans, an one who was not oman u BY THE END OF THE 3rd century CE, civil wars and outside attacks had greatly weakened the empire. Emperor Diocletian divided the empire into two parts, East and West. Each had its own emperor. u WHEN ODOACER, a German tribal army commander, declared himself Roman_Empire_16-17.indd 17 u HISTORIANS GIVE many reasons for the Western Empire’s fall. Instead of uniting against the barbarian threat, the Roman emperors and politicians plotted against king of Italy, the Western Roman Empire officially was no more. and did not speak atin was a ar arian. oman armies were na le to stop them. he estern emperors lost their power, and this part o the empire slipped awa , piece piece. inall , in CE, ar arians called oths stormed ome, destro ed its ildings, and carried each other. As the government weakened, Roman armies grew more powerful. Groups of soldiers fought one another to make their own favorite leader emperor. In the end, the government lost the loyalty of the Roman people, who were forced to pay high taxes to support the army. Wealthy Romans moved to their country villas and stopped participating in or caring about the Roman government. awa its al a les. ot long a terward, the omans were orced to gi e p control o ritain, a l rance , and pain. he final low came in CE, when a ar arian named doacer declared himsel king o tal . he estern oman mpire ended. he astern mpire lasted another , ears. u EMPEROR CONstantine founded Constantinople, which became the capital of the Eastern Empire. The Eastern Empire survived until 1453, when it fell to the Turks. Constantinople is now known as Istanbul. u THE HUNS WERE among the fiercest of the barbarians. Led by Attila, the Huns attacked many parts of the Roman Empire while Rome’s armies were busy fighting off other barbarian tribes. u AT THE BEGINNING of the 5th century, the Goths descended on Italy and continued their attacks on Rome until Emperor Honorius moved the empire’s capital to the Italian city of Ravenna. The great city of Rome had finally fallen. 3/13/17 11:20 AM XVIII (18) Activities WRITE AN EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH The Roman Empire didn’t fall in a day, a month, or even a year. But fall it did. Your job is to write a paragraph that explains the different reasons the Roman Empire fell. Use what you have learned in the magazine. Be sure to discuss the various invaders and the emperors’ responses to them. Use a Venn diagram, a timeline, or a T-chart to organize your information. DESIGN A COIN Most currency, including coins, contains at least one symbol of the country of origin. What symbols might be on a coin used in the Roman Empire? What images would represent those symbols? Use your ideas to design a coin that might have been used in the Roman Empire. Draw a picture of the coin. Write a caption that explains the symbols it contains. Roman_Empire_18-19.indd 18 3/13/17 11:22 AM XIX (19) MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES Early Romans It began as a collection of small farming villages and grew to become a city that ruled over a vast empire. Along the way, a king was overthrown, a republic was begun, and a government of checks and balances was created. Find out the details behind Rome’s early people and its extraordinary place in history. Christianity and Rome’s Legacies As an empire, Rome’s expansive reach stretched far and wide across the ancient world. Today, we see its impact and influence across the globe. Paramount to Rome’s empire lies the religion of Christianity, a centerpiece in the empire’s growth and legacy. Early Greeks From philosophy to democracy, ancient Greece has had a profound impact on human civilization. But how did Greek culture and society get its start? Learn about the geography of the region and its direct impact on trade, which gave birth to cities such as Sparta and Athens. CALIFORNIA STANDARDS HSS 6.7 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures during the development of Rome. LEARN MORE ONLINE! • Tacitus (above), a Roman historian who lived several decades after Augustus, really didn’t like Rome’s transformation from a republic to an empire. Read an excerpt from one of his works on the subject. • Greek influence on Roman civilization remained strong during the time of the empire, especially in the arts. Many educated Romans preferred to speak Greek rather than Latin. Roman_Empire_18-19.indd 19 • Rome wasn’t the first civilization to take an official count – or census – of its people. But the Roman Empire’s census was more advanced than earlier censuses. It was regular, usually occurring every five years. 6.7.3 Identify the location of and the political and geographic reasons for the growth of Roman territories and expansion of the empire, including how the empire fostered economic growth through the use of currency and trade routes. 6.7.4 Discuss the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Rome’s transition from republic to empire. Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills: Research, Evidence, and Point of View 5. Students detect the different historical points of view on historical events and determine the context in which the historical statements were made (the questions asked, sources used, author’s perspectives). • When the emperor Diocletian divided the empire, he strengthened it. He ruled the eastern part and put an officer named Maximian in charge of the western part. 3/13/17 11:22 AM hmhco.com EDITOR: Jennifer Dixon ART DIRECTION: Brobel Design DESIGNERS: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech PHOTO RESEARCH: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan ACTIVITIES WRITER: Marjorie Frank PROOFREADER: Amy Handy, Amy McIlwaine FACT-CHECKER: Amy McIlwaine AUTHOR: Linda Scher, James Waller AUTHOR TEAM LEAD: Amy K. Hughes PRESIDENT AND CEO: Ted Levine CHAIRMAN AND FOUNDER: Mark Levine GRADE 6 TITLES World’s Early People Ancient India Mesopotamia Indian Empires Ancient Egypt Ancient China Archaeology Early Romans Language Roman Empire Ancient Hebrews Christianity and Rome’s Legacies Early Greeks Olmec and Maya Greece’s Golden Age Civil Rights Ancient Persia ON THE COVER: Roman Empire ruins. Science Source: Brian Brake. PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Azoor Photo: p.3 top left (Augustus of Prima Porta); Adam astland ome p. top arc s reli s ose ramon polo lope p. ottom le t oman coins orld istor rchi e p. ottom right ithras orth ind ict re rchi es p. le t ilk oad cara an risma rchi o p. top right adrian alkenstein oto p. top center irc s axim s www. i le and ict res.com p. pper le t iocletian p. top le t incinnat s recei ing the am assadors alkenstein oto p. ottom acit s . Ancient Art and Architecture Collection: onald heridan p. ottom right catap lt spears . Art Resource: DEA Picture Library: p. center attering ram cala p. right oman doll l m p. pper right (student), p.12 bottom left (togas). Bridgeman Images: Museo e Gallerie Nazionali di apodimonte, aples, tal p. top right lla . agli rti e gostini ict re i rar p. ottom right hairdresser , p. ottom right enari s o onori s linari p. pper le t gladiators against wildcats . Getty Images: DEA/G. Dagli Orti/ De Agostini Picture Library: p.3 bottom (Marcus Aurelius), p.2 bottom center (Caligula), p.3 bottom left (Trajan); Fine Art Images/Heritage/Hulton Archive: p.2 bottom right (Nero); Universal History Archive: p.3 bottom left (Hadrian); Lipnitzki: p.3 bottom right onstantine , p. pper right onstantine . Granger Collection, NYC: p. top center a al attle p. pper center Attila, the Scourge of God , p. ottom le t doacer aphael p. lower right ttila s horseman . iStock: diane p. ottom le t g st s aesar stand p. top right testudo); wjarek: p.13 bottom left (altar), p.12 bottom center (stola asticcio p. top right mosaic oto p. top oman ath lexe is p. top right earthenware gs rafissimo p. pper right oman gladiators ina encel p. pper right chariot racing . 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