Download Are GMOs Different From Other Genetic Manipulations We`ve Done

Are GMOs Different From Other
Genetic Manipulations
We’ve Done for Centuries?
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FIND THE ANSWER TO A
KEY QUESTION IN THE
GMO CONTROVERSY:
ARE GMOS REALLY
ANY DIFFERENT?
GMO FACTS
Are GMOS Really Any Different Than Other Genetic
Manipulations We’ve Done for Thousands of Years?
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A Quick Note on This Guide:
To make this guide the most effective, we’re giving you the key information
you’ll need to actively and confidently discuss this GMO question with others.
A big part of our outreach efforts at The Walk a Mile Project is, well... YOU!
Every single person who can speak to the subject at hand, simply armed with
the facts (and hopefully a better perspective on the issue), can truly make a
difference.
Our job is to make sure you are well-prepared, so we give you rock solid facts
and responses to use whenever you’re involved with a debate on this key
question to the GMO controversy:
Are GMOs really any different than other genetic manipulations
we’ve done for thousands of years?
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Although talking about the genetic modification methods we started using
in the 20th century quickly turns complicated, the work we did in agriculture
prior to the 1900s was actually pretty straightforward. Anytime someone
says “we’ve been doing genetic modifications for centuries”, they’re really just
referring to these two methods. Let’s take a look at each one...
1.
SELECTIVE BREEDING
Until after World War II, humankind employed selective breeding (artificial
selection) as its principal breeding technique for thousands of years. Here
was the process –
Selective Breeding Process
From each year’s harvest, farmers select seeds from plants with the most
desirable characteristics and replant those seeds the following season. Yes,
that’s literally the process!
Read more about selective
breeding here:
http://www.gardeners.
com/how-to/geneticengineering-traditionalplant-breeding/7926.html
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2.
CROSS BREEDING
In the 1700s, we also started to use cross breeding, which is simply breeding
compatible plants – mixing the genetic makeup of the different plants
together for new traits. The parent plants must be compatible, either in the
same species or in a closely related species.
Cross Breeding Process
1. Remove the male organs of the flower to make sure the plant cannot
fertilize itself . This removes the source of pollen grains and prepares the
female parent of the cross.
2. Deposit, usually with the help of a brush, pollen from the selected male
parent into the female part of the emasculated flower.
3. If required, bag the cross to prevent contamination from any other pollen
grains reaching the flower. If the cross is successful, the plant develops and
seeds are formed.
Read more about cross
breeding here:
http://b4fa.org/biosciencein-brief/plantbreeding/plantbreeders-cross-plants/
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And until the 20th century rolled around, there you have it – that’s how
we “genetically modified” our crops. We’ll discuss the other 20th century
breeding methods at the end of this document, if you’d like to learn more
about those methods. For the purposes of answering the hot button
question at hand, it’s really only these 3 methods that hold relevance.
When comparing GMOs to the rest of the 20th century and beyond,
however, it’s a very different story, so I certainly encourage you to read
the this entire document to learn more.
3.
TRANSGENIC MODIFICATIONS
(GMOs)
Before we dive into the actual process, let’s review two key discoveries
that were catalysts for today’s genetically engineered crops. First, in 1970,
our ability to perform genetic modifications advanced significantly when
researchers discovered enzymes (existing within bacteria) that defend
against viruses by restricting viral activity. They were aptly named restriction
enzymes. When a virus tries to spread, restriction enzymes can cut up the
virus’ DNA before its able to reproduce – these enzymes are essentially an
aggressive defense mechanism.
Bio-engineers can use restriction enzymes to precisely cut DNA, making
them indispensable to genetic engineering. Ironically, however, we utilize
these enzymes to cut up DNA so we can force it between organisms (often
forcing genes into organisms that have never known them), while the
enzymes’ natural purpose is to cut up viral DNA in an effort to prevent it from
spreading.
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One of the other key discoveries in biotechnology is the bacterium known
as agrobacterium tumefaciens (tumafaciens meaning “tumor-making”),
which can infect wounded plant tissue and essentially dupe the plant into
expressing some of the bacteria’s own genes – for the bacteria’s benefit, but
to the detriment of the plant. It’s like a Trojan horse that infiltrates the
plant and then starts generating tumor cells, which produce food for the
bacteria. So Agrobacterium tumefaciens basically hijacks the plant and
starts creating a tumor within, simply to feed itself.
And it does this by transferring what’s called a plasmid, specifically the Ti
(tumor-inducing) plasmid, to the plant cell. Part of the Ti plasmid randomly
integrates into the chromosome of the new organism, and this part contains
genes that are expressed at high levels in the plant.
“The Ti plasmid has been genetically modified ("disarmed") by deleting the
genes involved in the production of bacterial food and of plant hormones,
and inserting a gene that can be used as a selectable marker. Any gene of
interest can be inserted into the Ti plasmid as well.”
Translation? Scientists can add in a new gene with a marker (often one that
is resistant to a specific antibiotic, like kanamycin) that, after the
modifications are complete, lets them identify exactly which samples took
on the new trait. In other words, if the modification worked, then the cells it
worked on will survive a dose of the antibiotic, whereas all other cells will
die. And yes, we are often creating antibiotic resistant organisms as part of
the genetic modification process. True story.
You can read even more details on that here: http://bioenergy.asu.edu/
photosyn/courses/BIO_343/lecture/geneng.html.
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Transgenic Modification Process
Note: Before the genetic engineering process can begin, a living organism
that exhibits the desired trait must first be discovered, so technically you
might consider that as Step #1.
1. Isolate the gene. The purpose here is to identify the “gene of interest” (GOI)
which provides the desired trait. The gene can originate from any organism,
but in commercial crops, bacteria are the most common source. First,
determine where within the DNA that the gene resides, which can require
extensive analysis, cutting, and potentially multiple restriction enzymes.
2. Extract the DNA. Cut out and extract the desired gene with restriction
enzymes.
3. Copy the gene (Gene Cloning). Use gene cloning to separate the gene of
interest from the rest of the genes extracted. As required in the next steps
(involving further study and experimentation with this gene), thousands of
exact copies are made here.
4. Create the DNA packet (Gene Design). The gene is modified to express in a
desired way by altering and replacing gene regions. This includes the GOI,
genes to switch the GOI on and off (known as promoter and terminator genes,
which often come from viruses, bacteria, or plant promoters), and a marker
gene. The marker gene helps identify when a plant cell has been successfully
genetically modified (as we discussed above).
It’s “necessary because the GM technique is inefficient, with only 1-2% of cells
successfully transformed. To identify these cells and use them to grow into
plants, at the end of the modification process the cells are cultured in
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a medium where the presence of the marker genes means they can survive
or produce a colour change, while other non-transformed cell will die or not
have the colour mark” (see GeneWatch link below). Most often, marker genes
that confer antibiotic or herbicide tolerance are used, favoring growth of the
transformed cells relative to the non-transformed cells. Make a note, as this
is crucial for step 6.
5. Insert gene into the target organism (Transformation). There are two
primary methods employed for this process (there are others used with much
less frequency), either the use of a gene gun, or the use of the Agrobacterium
tumefaciens bacterium. Neither of these two methods are “sufficiently
accurate or precise enough to allow the introduction of a gene or gene(s) at
one particular site in the genome. Rather, there may be multiple copies
inserted, genes may be in the forward or reverse orientation, and there
may be fragments of genes from the vector also transferred. Deletion,
rearrangement and replication of the plant’s own genes is also seen. These
transformation-induced mutations may occur at the site of insertion or be
genome wide. Such effects occur regardless of the source of the gene.”
6. Select the transformed organism. After transformation, use the gene
markers employed in Step 4 to differentiate between the modified plant cells
and the vast majority of cells that did not absorb the gene of interest If
antibiotic-resistant, then the cells are exposed to the antibiotic, and if
herbicide-tolerant, then the cells are exposed to the herbicide. After
exposure, only the transformed cells survive, as they express the selectable
marker gene.
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7. Regenerate the transformed organism. Create a new plant from the
transformed cells, with this process depending on the type of plant being
modified. Many types of plants only require a single plant cell to develop into
an entire plant, but each plant species has different requirements for
successful regeneration. Regardless, the proper environment is created for
the transformed cells to develop into an entire plant, containing the
transgene in every cell. The plants are then grown to maturity in a controlled
environment, and the seed produced from the mature plant is collected.
You can read more about the GMO process at the links below:
http://www.genewatch.org/sub-532324
http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=95
7879329&topicorder=2&maxto=9&minto=1
http://www.nepadbiosafety.net/subjects/biotechnology/process-ofdeveloping-genetically-modified-gm-crops
NOTE: If you really want to see just how elaborate the genetic engineering
process can be, visit this link to BiologyMad.com, and click on “Techniques of
Genetic Engineering”. Not all of those techniques apply to plant
modifications, but most of them do, and reading that alone will give you
a clear picture of just how much more involved GMOs are vs. traditional
breeding prior to the 20th century.
http://biologymad.com/GeneticEngineering/GeneticEngineering.htm
http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/gepts/Gepts.%202002.pdf
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THE ANSWER: It doesn’t take more than a few pages of reading to clearly
understand that the process we use to create GMOs is unlike anything we
ever used prior to the 1900s. When you hear someone say “We’ve been
creating GMOs for thousands of years”, you can now accurately and
confidently reply, “No. No, we really haven’t.”
It’s crystal clear that our previous breeding techniques were in no way related
to the technique we now use for transgenic modifications. That said, however,
we’re simply clearing up the invalid argument that GMOs are the same ole,
same ole. Yes, they are obviously a very unique process, but of course unique
doesn’t automatically mean bad. That’s a completely different question – it’s
just one that most definitely cannot be dismissed with a quick “GMOs are no
different from what we’ve always done” comment. We still need to uncover
the GMO truth.
THE QUICK RESPONSE: No, GMOs are nothing like the other forms of breeding
we’ve practiced for centuries – selective breeding and cross breeding.
Those two techniques were just a few steps (none of which involved a
laboratory), whereas the process we use for transgenic modifications are
much more involved and complex. That doesn’t make GMOs inherently bad,
but it’s blatantly false to say they are no different than what we created in
agriculture prior to the 20th century.
MORE TO THE STORY
There is, however, more to this story, because the advances made in the
1900s were extensive, and all prior to GMOs. Read on to learn more about
these two other key techniques: mutation breeding (mutagenesis) and
hybridization. Mutagenesis will probably surprise you.
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ENTER THE 20th CENTURY
Post-World War II, humanity greatly expanded its arsenal of genetic
modifications, starting with mutation breeding, often referred to as
mutagenesis. Mutagenesis is the induction of mutations using mutagenic
agents such as radiation or chemicals. We started using it for plant breeding
in the 1920s when researchers discovered that exposing plants to X-rays
increased variation within those plants – so yes, this actually pre-dates our
mid-1990s commercial GMOs by 70 years.
MUTATION BREEDING
Mutation breeding greatly accelerated after World War II, when scientists
started using nuclear particles as mutagens (spurred on by the Atoms For
Peace initiative). Despite its extremely unpredictable outcomes (the ratio
of beneficial to useless mutations is very small, approximately 1 in 800
mutations, or 0.1 %), mutagenesis has successfully developed thousands of
mutant varieties, some of which you’ve likely been eating for years, including
organic varieties.
Very few people even seem to know about mutagenesis. In fact, although
it’s a small fraction of all the seeds in existence, there are over 3,200 mutant
varieties in the Mutant Variety Database at the International Atomic Energy
Agency website (IAEA): http://mvd.iaea.org/#!Search
Mutation Breeding (Mutagenesis) Process
1. Select the crop variety to be used for Mutagen Treatment.
2. Select which plant part to use.
3. Conduct preliminary experiment to determine most suitable mutagen dose.
Mutagen treatments, as you would expect, are highly damaging, generally
inducing a high frequency of chromosomal changes. There is considerable
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killing of plants during the various stages of development after mutagen
treatment. Damage usually increases with the mutagen dose, so the optimum
dose is the one that produces the maximum frequency of mutations while
killing the fewest plants. In general, an overdose is likely to kill too many
treated individuals, while an underdose would produce too few mutations.
4. Expose selected plant part to mutagen.
Treated seeds are usually planted immediately in the field to raise the M1
generation.
5. Evaluate results.
Learn more about mutation breeding here:
http://agridr.in/tnauEAgri/eagri50/GBPR211/lec27.pdf
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/28/science/28crop.html?pagewanted=1&_
r=2&
HYBRIDIZATION
Although discovered in the 1800s, hybridization is another technique that
took off in the 20th century. Since cross-breeding and mutation breeding can
produce haphazard results, plant breeders looked for ways to ensure more
consistent offspring from crossed plants, resulting in the modern-day version
of this technique.
The drawback to hybridization is that seeds from F1 hybrids won’t produce
offspring with the same traits as their parents. Gardeners who save seeds
for replanting usually avoid hybrids, and farmers who grow hybrids must
purchase fresh seed each year. Similar to conventional cross-pollination, the
creation of F1 hybrids is limited to compatible plants, usually the same or
very closely related species.
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Hybridization process
1. Create two pure strains of plants by repeatedly inbreeding plants until a
very stable strain is attained.
2. Cross-pollinate the parent plants, yielding seeds that grow into uniform
plants with predictable traits, called F1 hybrids.
Learn more about hybridization here:
http://www.gardeners.com/how-to/genetic-engineering-traditional-plantbreeding/7926.html
There are other breeding techniques that took off in the 20th century as well,
but for the scope of this document, we focused on the 3 big ones – mutation
breeding, hybridization, and GMOs. You can learn more about those other
techniques here:
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/history-of-agriculturalbiotechnology-how-crop-development-25885295
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