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Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 89 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends I-Chung Ke & Kun-huei Wu∗ In this paper the authors argue that globalization may be interpreted as a phenomenon of converging means and diverging ends. The world is both converging and diverging, but in different dimensions. The instruments social actors use to achieve their agendas and goals become increasingly standardized while their fundamental goals and values seem to diverge in the process of globalization. With such an interpretation of globalization, the authors suggest that we clarify our own ‘ends’ first, from individual, organizational, to national level, and then achieve our goals with the assistance of standardized means. We should not only concentrate on picking up latest technologies but also develop our own values and visions. Putting Chinese wisdom as the core substance and using Western learning as the means ( 中學為體 , 西學為用 ) was the fundamental perspective in the early twentieth century in the East, and in the first decade of the twenty-first century we should give new meanings to this perspective. ∗ I-Chung Ke ( 柯 宜 中 ), currently assistant professor at Aletheia University, is interested in globalization, world culture, global education, and global Englishes. Kun-Huei Wu (吳坤暉), assistant professor & Chair of Applied English Department, Aletheia University. He is interesed in the fields related to English Teaching as Cultural Studies. as well Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 90 Key words: Globalization, Convergence, Divergence, Eastern Cultures, Cultural Differences Introduction Two years ago the first author read an article in an e-magazine1about the transferring of Taiwan’s business into Mainland China and its consequences. The term globalization appeared three times in that short article of approximately five hundred Chinese characters, and globalization was accounted for the intensified international competitions that forced Taiwan’s business to leave for Mainland China, where cheaper labor and land cost attracted and are still appealing to investors throughout the world. It is likely that we encounter the term globalization everyday in all kinds of mass media: television, broadcasting, newspapers, magazines, and periodicals. We seem to be continuously reminded that our ordinary lives are connected to the globe, and it is now a global society or an Earth village. No matter how we view this phenomenon, may it be globalization, transnationalization, 3 internationalization, late modernity 2 , 4 de-territorization , or space-time compression , even McDonaldization or 1 2 http://www.bwnet.com.tw/article?asp11674 accessed on 2005/6/24 See Giddens, A. The Globalizing of Modernity. In D. Held, & A. McGrew (Ed.), The Globalization Transformations Reader: An Introduction to Globalization Debate (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000), 92-99 Hay, C. & March, D., Introduction: Demystifying Globalization. In Hay, C. & March, D. (Ed.), Demystifying Globalization ( London: MacMillan Press, 2000). 4 Harvey, D., The Condition of Postmodernity (CambridgeMA: Blackwell , 1989). 3 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 91 Americanization5, the world is indeed changing as it has always been. But what is globalization after all? And how do we live with it? The dominant interpretation of economic globalization seems to simplify the complexity into a process of forming a global economy in which the market forces rule the world. The only way to thrive is to compete relentlessly in this cruel survival game of global capitalism. globalization is definitely not only about economy. But The emergence of the global economy definitely made a great impact on the world, but it represents just the conspicuous surface of the complicated phenomenon; what lies beneath is the possibility of a new world with better human conditions. In this short paper we would like to argue that globalization actually implies converging means and diverging ends. We will first discuss how the term globalization is defined in most literature, and follow with a detailed explanation of what we mean by converging means and diverging ends. Many scholars have discussed the issue of convergence and divergence in many ways6, and in this paper the authors have no intention to delve into the complex work of defining and categorizing convergence and divergence. We only wish to point out a new perspective on globalization and hope that such an interpretation leads to more meaningful discussions and debates in the field. 5 With such an Ritzer, G.& Stillman, T., Assessing McDonaldization, Americanizatio, and Globalization. In U. Beck, N. Sznaider & R. Winter (Ed.), Global America? The Cultural Consequences of Globalization (Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press 2003), 30-48 6 For detailed discussions on convergence and divergence, see Herkenrath, M., König, C., Scholtz, H. & Volken, T., Convergence and Divergence in the Contemporary World System: An Introduction, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 46 (5-6) 2005: 363-382. Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 92 assumption in mind, we attempt to promote utilizing the converging means to improve human conditions. We hope to find a way to make life better by working with the development of globalization, not against it. Globalization In the current postmodern era, people view the world differently, as their explanations of the various phenomena in their daily lives also vary. By displaying the complexity of people’s comprehensions of the controversial term ‘globalization,’ we would like to depict a fuzzy -and sometimes contradictory- picture of globalization. We do not think it is possible to pin down what exactly globalization is, but we do believe that it is something significant that impacts the world at individual, organizational, and probably national levels, if the concept of nation-state is still valid and powerful enough to balance the domination of market. As early as 1960s, the term globalization has been in use. The 7 “Global Village” which McLuhan used to discuss issues around a global culture is one of the earlier discussions of the phenomenon. This is often quoted as an initiation for the following numerous debates 8 . The increasing attention paid to the phenomenon of globalization started to explode in the late 1980s. Digging into the Library of Congress in 1997, 7 McLuhan, M. & Quentin, F., War and peace in the global village, ( NY: Bantam Books, 1967). 8 For example, Gough, N., Globalization and school curriculum change: locating a transnational imaginary. Journal of Educational Policy (1999 14 no. 1): 73-84. Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 93 Busch 9 surveyed the number of published books and articles that explicitly carry the word globalization in its title. In 1987 the number of books on globalization was less than ten, while in 1996 that number soared to two hundreds. The same trend happened in the number of articles with globalization in their title. In addition, the attention from various disciplines has helped to create a “discourse of globalization.” From economists, political scientists, sociologists to anthropologists, and recently educators as well as interdisciplinary scholars of cultural studies, area studies, and feminist studies, it seems that almost everyone in social science is interested and influenced by this discourse of globalization. Magazines and periodicals began to focus on the issue of globalization. With such a trend, the discourse is getting so popular across disciplines that the word globalization has become a catchword in most languages. So what is this phenomenon of globalization? . Owing to the rise of the globalization discourse, terms such neo-liberalism, managerialism, economic rationalism10, global economy, outsourcing, and international division of labor 11 have occupied reports and columns in not only economic and financial magazines but also those of general genre, like 9 Busch, A., Unpacking the Globalization Debate: Approaches, Evidence and Data. In Hay, C. & March, D. (Ed.), Demystifying Globalization, (London: MacMillan Press, 2000), 21-48 10 See Mok, K & Tan, J., Globalization and Marketization in Education: A comparative analysis of Hong Kong and Singapore (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar 2004). 11 Giddens, A. The Globalizing of Modernity. In D. Held, & A. McGrew (Ed.), The Globalization Transformations Reader: An Introduction to Globalization Debate (Malden, MA: Blackwell 2000), 92-99 94 Tamkang Journal of International Affairs Time or Newsweek. Economic factors are frequently attributed as potent forces, but other factors are also receiving wide attention12. We draw from other scholars’ observation to illuminate the phenomenon of globalization. At a general level prominent indicators of globalization include: democratic movements; worldwide interdependence in economy, ecology and finance; free movements of goods, capital, knowledge, and images; and shared values, processes and structures13. Moreover, the language describing globalization also flourished with popularity of the concept: the aspects of globalization (a world economy, international migration, and the development of global cities 14 ), the bases of globalization (information and innovation 15 ), and the dimensions of globalization (forces, connections, and imaginations16). All these terms imply tremendous efforts to understand the phenomenon of globalization. There is a common emphasis in the discourse upon all kinds of flows: capital, labor, information, technology, culture, images, or people 17 . The abundance of the literature in the discourse makes understanding the phenomenon even more difficult and challengeable. 12 On cultural aspect, see Wilson, R. & Dissanayake, W. (Ed.), Global/local: Cultural Production and the Transnaional Imaginary (Durham, NC:Duke University Press 1996): 1-18; on political aspect, see Kinnvall, C. Analyzing the global-local nexus. In Globalization and Democratization in Asia (NY: Routledge 2002), 3-18 13 Cohen, J., (ed.) For the Love of Country (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1996). Ibid. 15 Carnoy, M., Globalization and educational reform: what planners need to know (Paris: UNESCO, 1999). 16 Burawoy, M., Grounding Globalization. In Burawoy, M. et al. Global Ethnography (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 2000), 29-35 & 337-351. 17 Kinnvall, 2002. 14 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 95 While few would disagree with the commonly observed ‘aspects’ or ‘dimensions’ of globalization, the interpretations at its core vary greatly, a group of prominent political and social scholars18 presented three major camps in the discourse of globalization: the skeptics, hyperglobalists, and transformationalists. Some scholars believe that globalization has long been existent and it is not something new. that people use a different lens to see it. The world is the same, only They are the skeptics. For the skeptics, the world has been globalizing for centuries and the current globalization is not much different from the past ones, and some would even argue that in the imperial era the world was more globalized because there were less barriers and obstacles since most nation-states emerged after WWII 19 . The skeptics pay more attention to historical development and believe that the current globalization does not differ much in terms of its core features. They see the main structure and social systems remaining stable in the near future, i.e. nation-states will maintain their dominance over people’s lives. The long-lasting problems of inequality and poverty will not be solved by the globalization process. There are also some others who believe that nation-states are losing their power to the global market and the accompanying economic forces. As a result, the basic institutions of society are being “globalized”. The world is quite different and everything is changing and will alter rapidly with the progress of globalization. These are the radicals, or hyperglobalists, who regard current globalization as a brand new 18 Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D. & Perraton, J., Global Transformations, Politics, Economics and Culture ( Cambridge: Polity Press 1999). 19 New York Times’ Kristof argued that we are less global in some respects today than a century ago, see Kristof, N.D. At This Rate, We’ll Be Global in Another Hundred Years. New York Times, May 23, 1999. Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 96 phenomenon. They believe that globalization is changing the world toward a converging world society with the rise of a single global economy overwhelming nation-states 20 . Contemporary globalization fueled by information technology and free-market ideology is changing the world in unparalleled and incomparable ways. They see current globalization as more than the extension of the previous modernization project. Technological breakthroughs and a single global economy will in the near future transcend the current regional economies. And there are still some people who do not agree with both, and opt to see globalization as “a social phenomenon that has brought qualitative changes in all cross-border transactions.” 21 different, but not everything has changed. The world is indeed The transformationalists are not as positive as the hyperglobalists and neither so pessimistic as the skeptics. Globalization has to be understood as a multidimensional process. They see globalization as a shift or transformation in the scale of human social organization. The transformation makes a huge impact on the power relations across the world's major regions and continents. The globalization process divides and integrates the world at the same time. Globalization may mean a shrinking world for some but for the majority it creates a distancing or profound disembedding of power relations. It changes the ways the world operate and how most people live their everyday lives. 20 See Friedman, T.L. A Manifesto for the Fast World. New York Times Magazine, March 28,1999 21 Hoogvelt, A.. Globalization and the postcolonial world: the new political economy of development. (MD: John Hopkins Press, 1999), 121 97 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends The authors’ views resonate with the transformationalists’ in general principle, as we conceptualize the transformation as converging means and diverging ends. We expect that technological developments will continue to improve the physical being of human kind, but potential conflicts caused by diverging ends may intensify the political turbulences across and among the major countries and regions. Nevertheless we still believe harmonious co-existence is within reach as long as we make use of the converging means to communicate our diverging ends. Stability comes from increased mutual understandings, which should be facilitated by the converging means that I explain in the following section. Converging Means It seems inevitable that the world will become more and more connected and interdependent. And the main reason is that the material infrastructure and cultural institutions are increasingly standardized. The emergence of a global economy signifies the standardization and synchronization of national markets in different time zones. The medium of communication, even the ways people communicate, homogenizes with the rise of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) such as telecommunication and internet. Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGOs) and Politically Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) have proved to contribute greatly to the evolving world order since World War II22. Even the education we offer to the next generation seems to become more and more similar in its form, organization, and structure23 and this may lead to the homogenization of 22 Boli, J., Thomas, George, Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organization Since 1875. (CA: Stanford University Press, 1999). 23 Meyer, J., Ramirez, F., The World Institutionalization of Education. In J. Schriewer Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 98 ontology, how we make sense of the world and the platform on which we think. While the most prominent example of converging means may be the computer we use everyday, the more significant and probably more fundamental change is the rise of the modern nation-state. For most people it is hard to imagine that just two hundred years ago the notion of government and nation was not existent for most peoples. Monarchies and tribes ruled most regions of the world. Although only two centuries old, the modern nation-state is now taken for granted. 24 community The imagined of the modern nation-state gradually developed in Europe since the eighteenth century. What makes the modern nation-state the most fundamental element as a converging means is that we can find certain common characteristics in any modern nation-state. We can expect the particular elements in the government, such as ministries in charge of foreign and domestic affairs, as modern citizens know that bureaucracy is similar everywhere in the world. “Modern educational, 25 medical, scientific, and family law institutions” are expected in any (Ed.), Discourse Formation in Comparative Education ( Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003). The world-institutionalists in sociology works on empirical studies to show that the world is standardizing in certain dimensions, particularly those what we called ‘means’, the technical dimensions; see Drori, G., Meyer, J.,Ramirez, F., & Schofer, E. (Ed.), Science in the Modern World Polity (Stanford: Stanford University Press2003); Lechner, F., & Boli, J. World Culture: Origins and Consequences (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005). 24 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. (New York: Verso, 1991). 25 p.146 in Meyer, J., Boli, J., Thomas, G., & Ramirez, F. (1997). World Society and the Nation-state. American Journal of Sociology, 103(1): 144-81. Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends modern nation-state. 99 The infrastructure and social institutions, and in particular the underlying rational rules, are the elements of the modern nation-state. It is easy for people in developed countries to assume these institutions exist in underdeveloped countries. But in the last few decades after World War II, the model of the modern nation-state has been widely adopted26, thus providing a critical cornerstone for all human beings to pursue different meanings of life. With the nation-state assumed globally, the formation of a global economy, or a world capitalist economy, drastically synchronizes the world. After the fall of the Berlin wall, and subsequently the ideal of Communism, the market economy was adopted globally. The market, functioning as a level field, facilitates the flow of capital, skills, information, and even labor. It allows individuals to pursue their own goals while making little intervention in what the actors in the market intend to accomplish. Market provides another important means for modern actors to carry out their intentions. But the rise of the global market would not be possible without the development in technology. Technological development has indeed transformed our life, and in particular the pace of its development has accelerated since World War II. Electronic products are being made and invented as human beings pour in more and more time and effort. And the results are the changing instruments by which we do our work. Computers and mobile phones has become common commodities, and the creation of a virtual world 26 The nation-state developmental model was once thought to lead to similar societies around the world,; see Inkeles, A., One World Emerging? Convergence and Divergence in Industrial Societies (Boulder, CO: WestviewPress1998). Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 100 greatly influenced how the real world operates. The monopoly of certain technologies in our life may be illustrated by the dominance of Microsoft Office and recently Google. Many teachers and administrators might get bored by all the PowerPoint presentations. And we have to keep in mind that the post-war technological developments go hand in hand with capitalism. We also should not neglect the roles IGOs and NGOs play in standardizing the global environment. Literature investigating IGOs and NGOs and their roles in shaping up the current world abounds27. It should be recognized the significance of World Trade Organization (WTO), United Nations (UN) and its subordinate organizations, and other intergovernmental organizations to the creation of the current world. These organizations negotiate common standards and compatible platforms for communication and dialogues for respective purposes. In the meantime, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play similar roles in parallel with various agendas that the official institutions cannot achieve. These organizations bring modern knowledge and instruments to every corner in the world. Although each may have different goals in mind, their presence greatly enhance the convergence of instrumental means. Another important means in modern society is mass education. Mass education is regarded as an indispensable component in the 27 For example, Finnemore, M., National Interests in International Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press1996). Boli, J., & Thomas, G. Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organization Since 1875 (CA: Stanford University Press1999). Drori, G. United Nation’s Dedications: A World Culture in the Making? International Sociology, (2005 20 no. 2): 175-199. Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 101 construction of nation/state in Europe in the nineteenth century28. And by now almost every child in modern nation-state is required to go to school. A study29 that surveys the curricula around the world from late nineteenth century found that what is taught in modern schooling is becoming more similar over time. Math, language, science, and social studies constitute the backbone of school curriculum, and the classroom as a form for teaching and learning also leads to the assumed conception of education. Modern schooling provides children, or future citizens, with a relatively similar mental framework to work things out in their future. The mental framework is presumably based on science and rational reasoning30, on which modern corporations are also built. It remains controversial to claim that the means human beings use is converging, given the lack of historical comparisons to support the claim. Some might argue that people have long been using similar tools to hunt, farm, and produce. But we argue that the extent to which people use similar instruments, or ways to achieve their goals, has intensified with the rise of modern nation-state and technology. The converging means reaches out to more populations and increasingly makes greater impacts. Moreover, what we mean by “means” is more than observable tools; the implicit rules and habits of thinking and communication indicate 28 Ramirez, F., & Boli, J.. Global Patterns of Educational Institutionalization. In G. Thomas, Meyer, John, Ramirez, F. & Boli, J. (Ed.), Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (CA: Sage 1987), 150-171. 29 Meyer, J., Kamens, D., Benavot, A., Cha, Y., & Wong, S.. School Knowledge for the Masses (London: Falmer Press 1992). 30 See Drori, G., Meyer, J.,Ramirez, F., & Schofer, E. (Ed.)., Science in the Modern World Polity (Stanford: Stanford University Press 2003). Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 102 profound changes in the global landscape. The ways we try to achieve our goals, both physically and mentally, are becoming similar. In the near future it seems quite plausible that the current trend will continue, thus accelerating the converging process. Diverging Ends With the societies which used to be bounded by national boundaries becoming more global, many of the various social problems and issues are now associated with globalization. The differences between a problem and an issue are sometimes quite complicated. The fundamental difference lies in the standpoint of the viewer. For some people the phenomenon is a problem, while for some it is just an issue. But in principle, an inner and individual phenomenon tends to be conceived as a problem, while an outer and collective one, an issue. For example, English as an international dominant language could be a problem for some traditional language preservers, and it could be just an issue of the homogeneity of languages for some native English speakers. It could even be neither a problem nor an issue as some people just take it for granted. Diverse opinions and perspectives sprout in this divisive and integrative world. We should recognize that there are quite a few problems and lots of issues that most people acknowledge in terms of globalization. Globalization simply is not taken for granted and accepted, as the phenomenon itself is the biggest problem or issue at present, depending on the perspective. These symptoms of globalization, if we may call them that, illustrate the point that the world is diverging on the Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 103 fundamental values and thus, future directions. Our goals, values, and even worldviews are not becoming more similar even though we tend to use similar instruments. And sometimes the converging means facilitates or contributes to the rising disparity among the different values. Inequality This is perhaps the most predominant and conspicuous problem/issue concerning globalization. It was estimated that about 80% of the world’s population lives outside global consumer networks31. The majority of the flows of capital, information, and people are controlled by a small population called global elites. It is the elites who enjoy the better life brought by globalization, as they move freely in the virtual global world. They are tourists32 and “astronauts”33 who physically move frequently around the world. They could be hi-tech engineers, who are seen more often in the Internet world than in the real world, or financial managers handling numbers, and the invisible money flows beneath the numbers in multi-national corporations. They produce knowledge, and play active roles in the process of globalization. The world is changed by these small amounts of people while the majority of the population only sit and watch. Throughout history it has always been the elites who determine the lives of common people, while globalization is alleged to have 31 The claim was made in Barnet, R.J. and Cavanagh, J. Global Dreams: Imperial Corporations and the New World Order ( Touchstone: New York, 1994). 32 The term tourist was used in Bauman, Z. Tourists and Vagabonds. In Globalization: The Human Consequences (Polity: Cambridge 1998), 77-102 33 Ong uses astronauts to describe the global trotters and businessmen frequently seen on international flights. See Ong, A. Flexible Citizenship: the Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Duke University Press: Durham, NC, 1999), 1-26 and 110-136. Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 104 intensified the gap. (The skeptics may argue that the situation remains similar, while the hyperglobalists may offer the dramatic increase in the number of elites as an evidence that the situation has improved. As the difference between the rich and the poor widens, various social problems are arising. The disparity between the rich countries and the poor countries, and in particular, the rich and the poor within most countries, seemingly continues to increase, and until now no sure method of how to deal with it is within sight. . The following problems/issues are associated with this fundamental problem/issue to a certain degree. The rich consume most of the resources while the poor swallow the bitter effects of the deterioration of the environment. The rich impose their cultures on the poor and use their power to exploit the poor. The rich could refer to a region, a group of countries, a country, and a group of people. The tension between the First World and the Third World does not appear to ease with the ascendance of globalization. and poor countries. Nor do the disputes between rich countries Some ethnicities or races are richer while some are poorer, and the everlasting conflicts between ethnic or racial groups surface in global terrorism. The market may provide a platform, but it also creates many problems. We may say that market fueled the surfacing of the previously hidden conflicts by providing the necessary logistical means. Ecology Environmental problems/issues have haunted the media even earlier than the rising discourse of globalization. Industrial development has 105 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends cost human beings the unpolluted environment in which we used to live. But ecological and environmental groups also join anti-globalization campaigns, since it seems that globalization has sped up the exploitation of the Earth. Indeed, the fast movement of capital, techniques, and workforces has turned what used to be farms or forests into factories. “In the last five years, globalization has hastened environmental destruction and eroded community self-determination” 34 . With economic forces and concerns as propeller and the priority in the process of globalization, it becomes worrisome that our Earth might one day lose its beauty and livable conditions. The world of humankind has definitely not reached consensus on how to deal with the relationship with Mother Nature. People are aware of the problems associated with global warming, yet the fact that the United States refused to sign the Kyoto Protocol to curb the emission of carbon dioxide shows the dilemma. Human beings, though technologically advanced, still bicker over what environmental protection is and how to carry it out35. Cultural and political imbalance While a huge amount of information, images, and cultural goods circulate throughout the world, the majority of these goods are produced by certain dominant cultures. The cultures of the indigenous and minorities may be under the threat of disappearance. 34 Though old Gersh, J. Seeds of Chaos. Amicus Journal, Summer 1999 That Al Gore’s “An Inconvenient Truth” gaining worldwide popularity testifies the unawareness of environmental problems for most people in the world. Becoming aware is only the first step; how to deal with it is the hard part. 35 106 Tamkang Journal of International Affairs cultures transform into new cultures as different cultures mingle and blend, globalization has increased the pace of transformation of cultures by its powerful forces and networks. The transformation of cultures may 36 be interpreted as cultural imperialism , as the residue of imperialism still remains in the present in indirect forms. Taylor 37 , seeing Americanization, modernization, and globalization as inseparable, points out the close relationship between what he terms “the American hegemonic cycle” in the twentieth century and similar evolving patterns of processes of modernization and globalization. Zachary38 attributes inequality, consumerism, and cultural monotony in the world to the dark side of ‘Americanization.’ Questions such as “ should we keep a certain tribal culture by all means?” and “what is the best political governance for human beings?” would yield numerous answers. The technological innovation brought colonization in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and what will the current globalization, also intrigued by innovation, take us to? A lot depends on which value(s) emerges from the competing field. Ethnicity/Race/Nationalism Ethnical and racial conflicts have a long history. Wars are perhaps always happening throughout human history. But does globalization help reconcile the conflicts? Or does it intensify the fights for resources? For many people globalization means more competition, which leads to 36 Said, E.. Overlapping Territories, Intertwined Histories. In Culture and Imperialism (Alfred E Knoff: NY, 1993), 3-61. 37 Taylor, P.J. Izations of the World: Americanization, Modernization and Globalization. In In Hay, C. & March, D. (Ed.), Demystifying Globalization (London: MacMillan Press), 49-70 38 Zachary, G. P., The World Gets in Touch with its Inner American. Mother Jones (1999 Jan/Feb). Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends 107 confrontation in pursuit of interests. Every nation attempts to “win” in this global competition and takes actions in securing “national” interests. There is now more free trade, but in other fields there might be more invisible blocks within a nation. On the other hand, while “the freedoms of the post-cold-war era have come too quickly for law and order,”39 the boundaries between ethnicities, races, and nations are falling apart. The complicated relationships among ethnicity, race and nation is exemplified in the Balkan case 40 . The issues concerning certain ethnic, race, nationality, and human beings as a whole seem to heighten as globalization rolls along. We are becoming more global, cosmopolitan on one hand, and local, indigenous on the other hand at the same time. Terrorism There seems to be no universally accepted definition of terrorism. However, current definitions of terrorism mainly share one common element: politically motivated behavior. Historically, international organizations fail to agree on a definition of terrorism due to distinctive illustration. In general, one man’s terrorist is often another man’s freedom fighter. This is a complex and emergent issue, involving all the issues mentioned above. countries claimed. It may be seen as a particular form of war, as some We would rather define it as the surfacing of long-existing hidden conflicts. And what enables the surfacing certainly would include technology, which brought globalization. The global terrorism network is an extreme case of anti-globalization. But such negative form of globalization definitely will be an important issue within next few decades. The case of terrorism shows that globalization is 39 40 Lloyd, J., The Godfathers Go Global. New Statesman, December 20, 1999. See Longworth, R.C., A New Kind of War. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 108 indeed facilitating and serving to different and conflicting purposes. These issues/problems are just some major cases, much less than the anti-globalists have provided and wish us to be aware of41. However, the issues/problems were already existent, either overtly or covertly. Globalization itself is not the source of the problems; instead it simply intensifies or amplifies what was not so conspicuous before. Actually we, human beings, are the source of the problems, and only we ourselves can solve the problems we created. We would argue that the different values and ends of humankind should be the major source of these problems and issues. And these conflicts and dissonances intensify because both parties utilize the converging means of globalization to further their diverging ends. development in instruments As a result, the (technological) (or means), without corresponding development in human values (or ends), denotes disaster and a doomful future for human beings. Globalization as a Facilitator There are certainly quite a few problems and issues with the thesis of globalization as converging means and diverging ends. The first and most critical one is the division of means and ends. The question is whether we can cleanly separate means and ends. In many cases means and ends go together, just like in research, you use different methods for different research questions, and every method has a methodology, which July/August 1999. For instance, Walden Bello’s “Deglobalization” (2002, Zed books: NY) provides an example of an antiglobalist’s attempt to build a better world. 41 109 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends implies a philosophical stance and value underneath the ‘means’. We have to admit that in certain cases, the means does have an effect on the ends, and without doubt, the converging means did create some common cultural commodities42 and similar values in younger generations43. But in terms of deeper ends, such as the meaning of life and human being, we see no consensus showing. Another problem is the complexity beneath the general categorization of means and ends. If we are to explore all the possible means and ends and examine the trends one by one, inevitably we would find examples of diverging means or/and converging ends. We have more options for communication, transportation, and production. But despite of more tools to use, modern people seemingly tend to use only a few. There may be more tools available, but the tools that are used may be quite similar. As for the issue of universal ends, some traditional values and ethics, such as conforming to seniority and gender norms gradually do lose ground to modern ideas of equality, human rights, and freedom. But so far we do not observe the emergence of a set of universal ends at fundamental level. We acknowledge that some interpersonal and intercultural norms may not be diverging, particularly at the surface level, but the fundamental ontology and meaning of human existence seem to deviate with the development of a global economy. Modern people live their life on more diverse foundations. Various religions do not die out, 42 Most discussions on “global culture(s)” involve consumerism and commodification of cultures. See Tomlinson, J., Globalization and Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999). 43 Schlegel, A., The global spread of adolescent culture. In Crockett, L. & Silbereisen, R. (Ed.) Negotiating adolescence in times of social change (London: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 110 but instead, flourish in postmodern societies44. The point here is that globalization does not equal to neo-liberalism, marketizaion, or a homogeneous world. to achieve our aims. It is a process that facilitates us Thus our work should not be against globalization, rather with globalization. Mutual understanding should go beyond knowledge and deeper into the realm of value among all human beings. We can be critical of globalization, but on the other hand we should utilize the platform of globalization to improve human conditions. Do something rather than be cynical. We think Joel Spring45 provides an example. With his critical stance against globalization, he investigated into issues concerning globalization and educational rights through what he termed an inter-civilizational analysis. Global culture is generally regarded as standardization and homogenization, in which economic forces play a powerful role. But his focus was on the concept of human rights and related concepts like freedom and equality. By looking into the major civilizations, Confucian, Islamic, Western, and Hindu, in terms of the meaning of educational rights, Spring tried to integrate the ideas and offered his statement of the educational rights, hoping it to become acceptable worldwide. Globalization facilitated his investigation, which helps communicate 44 Thomas, M., The global resurgence of religion and the transformation of international relations (N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). 45 Spring, J. Globalization and Educational Rights (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: NJ, 2001). 111 Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends the concept of human rights for readers in different contexts. He would not be able to meet so many people around the world and access so much information two decades ago. If the rapid flows of information could help in some form communicating abstract ideas like value, the mutual understanding between different peoples may go deeper. As peoples from different cultures know each other more and more, it is more possible that we see all human being as our “fellow city-dwellers or countrymen46”. The dialogue and communication should be helpful to alleviate the rising conflicts among diverse worldviews. Though Spring’s search for universal rights is questionable, his efforts toward a better world should still be recognized. The proposed route involves making use of the converging means to construct platforms or foundations on which different values and worldviews co-exist with one another so as to accommodate the diverging ends. And the most critical step in the platform-constructing process would be re-evaluating the fundamental values at individual and organizational level. It should be done from bottom up, as national governments are supposed to play minor roles in this globalization era ruled by market. Corporations, local, multi-national, or global, may be the locomotive of this process47. Eastern Wisdom Clarifying our own ‘ends’ first and then achieve our goals with the assistance of standardized means is our proposal. 46 We should not only Page 9 in Nussbaum, M. Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism. In Cohen, J. ed., For the Love of Country (Beacon Press: Boston MA, 1996), 3-19 47 See the “spiritual turn in entrepreneurs” in Aburdene, P., Megatrends 2010: The Rise of Conscious Capitalism (VA: Hampton Roads Publishing Co, 2005). Tamkang Journal of International Affairs 112 concentrate on picking up latest technologies but also develop our own values and visions. Putting Chinese wisdom as the core substance and using Western learning as the means (中學為體,西學為用) was the fundamental perspective in the early twentieth century in the East, and in the first decade of the twenty-first century we should give new meanings to this perspective. After a century’s development in material aspect, the East Asian countries saw great transformation brought by Mr. Democracy and Mr. Science (德先生及賽先生). However, the problems of these Western thoughts and practices, particularly applied to Eastern cultures, are gradually recognized worldwide. Democracy and science are definitely not panaceas. They may serve well in material world, but in terms of spiritual realms, Eastern philosophies increasingly gain currency. Oriental ideals such as human-based governance (人治) and respect for nature (敬天) may sell well (and perhaps serve well) in this globalized world. ends. We should use available material technology to further spiritual Our utmost priority ought to be establishing our fundamental values and ways of living and seeing the world. These are the sources and motivations of our every action as well as the guiding lighthouse in the ever-changing globalization era. And they are easy to be left out in the blind pursuit of economic and technological advancement. We believe all scholars involved in the discourse of globalization prefer to see a better future and our works are in some ways related to this ultimate goal. The challenge remains huge, but progress has been made. As Nobel-Prize winner Stiglitz reminds us that “[t]he problem is that economic globalization has outpaced the globalization of politics and Globalization as Converging Means and Diverging Ends mindsets 48 113 ,” the converging means brought about by economic globalization has to be balanced by compatible development in diverging ends. Material progress and spiritual development are both necessary for a better future. The quest for our meanings as human beings is always there no matter who we are. We need balance in materiel life and spiritual life, for only with external growth together with internal development do we sustain our everyday life. The world is changing and everyone in the world has the power to participate in the change. What we need most in the twenty-first century is not so much an objective observer as an enthusiastic actor. Globalization does not always lead to certain consequences, for we are the decision makers that make the consequences. 48 Stiglitz, J., Making Globalization Work. Project Syndicate, 8 September 2006. http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/stiglitz74. 114 Tamkang Journal of International Affairs