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Asian American Journal of Psychology Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian American Females and Males: A Look at Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth Edward C. Chang, Marisa J. Perera, and Yvonne Kupfermann Online First Publication, March 25, 2013. doi: 10.1037/a0031627 CITATION Chang, E. C., Perera, M. J., & Kupfermann, Y. (2013, March 25). Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian American Females and Males: A Look at Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth. Asian American Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0031627 Asian American Journal of Psychology 2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 000 © 2013 American Psychological Association 1948-1985/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0031627 Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian American Females and Males: A Look at Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth Edward C. Chang, Marisa J. Perera, and Yvonne Kupfermann University of Michigan In the present study, we looked at sex differences in negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances (viz., drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction) in a South Asian American sample of 97 females and 83 males. Females, compared with males, were found to report greater self-worth involving others’ approval, appearance, academic competition, and greater drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Results of conducting hierarchical regression analyses indicated that for females, negative affectivity accounted for significant variance in each of the three eating disturbance outcomes. Furthermore, the inclusion of contingencies of self-worth was found to account for additional unique variance in eating disturbances within this group. In contrast, regression results obtained for males generally failed to support the utility of a prediction model of eating disturbances involving negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth. Implications of the present findings for understanding sex differences in eating disturbances in South Asian Americans are discussed. Keywords: South Asian Americans, eating disturbances, sex differences, contingencies of self-worth study South Asian Americans apart from other Asian American groups. Given the dearth of empirical research in the extent psychological literature focusing on South Asian Americans, it is not surprising that very little is currently known about this population, including an understanding of basic psychological conditions and associated processes in this ethnic group. In the present study we focus on one important but neglected area of study in understanding South Asian Americans; namely, eatingrelated dysfunctions. South Asian Americans or Americans of South Asian heritage (e.g., India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) make up one of the largest segments of the Asian population living in the United States. According to the 2000 U.S. Census (Barnes & Bennett, 2002), after Chinese Americans, Indian Americans represent one of the next largest groups of Asian Americans living in the United States, with an estimated 1.9 million individuals. Yet, it is interesting to note that much of the research focusing on Asians, including Asian Americans, has been limited to studies of individuals of Far East Asian heritage (e.g., China, Korea, Japan; Chang & Asakawa, 2003; Chen et al., 2009; Choi, 2002; Fung & You, 2011; Hofstetter et al., 2010; So Kim, Kim, Ho Cha, & Lim, 2007; Uchida & Kitayama, 2009; Yip, 2009). This may be problematic in that findings comparing Far East Asians and South Asians have indicated important group differences. For example, using data from the National Latino and Asian American Study, Tummala-Narra, Alegria, and Chen (2012) found that South Asian Americans tended to experience significantly different levels of discrimination and acculturative stress than was found among most Far East Asian Americans (e.g., Chinese Americans, Korean Americans, Japanese Americans). Such findings suggest that it would be both meaningful and useful to Eating Disturbances, Negative Affectivity, and Contingencies of Self-Worth Eating disturbances and disorders (e.g., anorexia, bulimia, body dissatisfaction) have been estimated to affect millions of individuals in the United States alone, and research findings indicate that the incidence of these disorders has been growing over the past several decades (e.g., Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007; Lucas, Beard, O’Fallon, & Kurland, 1991). Eating disturbances have been associated with other negative outcomes and disorders, ranging from depression (e.g., Benas & Gibb, 2008; Minarik & Ahrens, 1996; Rawana, Morgan, Nguyen, & Craig, 2010; Stice & Bearman, 2001; Wildes, Simons, & Marcus, 2005), anxiety (e.g., Anestis, Holm-Denoma, Gordon, Schmidt, & Joiner, 2008; Levinson & Rodebaugh, 2012; Pallister & Waller, 2008), stress (e.g., Freeman & Yacono, 2004; Wolff, Crosby, Roberts, & Wittrock, 2000), to suicide risk and mortality (e.g., Arcelus, Mitchell, Wales, & Nielsen, 2011; Button, Chadalavada, & Palmer, 2010; Franko & Keel, 2006). Given these findings, it is not surprising that one central variable that has been consistently linked to eating disturbances has been the disposition to experience chronic negative mood or negative affectivity (e.g., Ansell, Grilo, & White, 2012; Engelberg, Steiger, Gauvin, & Wonderlich, 2007; Hutchinson, Rapee, Edward C. Chang, Marisa J. Perera, and Yvonne Kupfermann, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan. Part of this research was supported by a Psi Chi/APS Summer Research Grant awarded to the second author, under the sponsorship of first author. The first author would like to thank Chang Suk-Choon and Tae MyungSook for their encouragement and support throughout this project. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edward C. Chang, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail: [email protected] 1 2 CHANG, PERERA, AND KUPFERMANN & Taylor, 2010; Lyubomirsky, Casper, & Sousa, 2001; Masheb & Grilo, 2008; Schulz & Laessle, 2010; Stice et al., 2001; Stice, Bohon, Marti, & Fischer, 2008; Suisman, Slane, Burt, & Klump, 2008). For example, in a recent study examining the link between personality factors and eating disturbances (viz., drive for thinness & bulimic symptoms) in a sample of 307 female college students, Downey and Chang (2007) found that negative affectivity was not only significantly associated with greater experiences of eating disturbances, but it also served to mediate the personality-eating disturbance link. Yet, there is reason to consider other individual-differences variables in addition to negative affectivity. Specifically, a number of studies have also shown that having low global self-esteem may play a key role in the development of eating disturbances (e.g., Barker & Bornstein, 2010; Dunkley & Grilo, 2007; Fitzpatrick, Lesser, Brandenburg, & Lesser, 2011; Gual et al., 2002; O’dea, 2004), with findings from some studies pointing to the potential value of looking at more specific facets of self-esteem (e.g., appearance-based esteem; Geller et al., 1998; Mendelson, McLaren, Gauvin, & Steiger, 2002). According to Crocker and colleagues (Crocker, 2002; Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, & Bouvrette, 2003; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001), adult self-esteem, as measured by the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (CSWS; Crocker et al., 2003), is best represented as a multidimensional construct that is composed of distinguishable dimensions linked to distinct psychosocial domains (viz., others’ approval, appearance, competition, competence, family support, virtue, and God’s love). Thus, the model and measure of contingent self-worth proffered by Crocker and colleagues offers a mean for identifying dimensions of self-esteem that may be most relevant for understanding eating disturbances in adults. Yet, no study has examined the extent to which, beyond negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth may play a key role in accounting for eating disturbances in adults, including South Asian Americans (cf. Iyer & Haslam, 2003; Reddy & Crowther, 2007). Moreover, because the majority of the studies conducted on eating disturbances have often been limited to females, it would be important to determine whether sex differences are present by studying both males and females. Although the prevalence rates for eating dysfunctions have been found to be much higher in females than males, males remain at risk for eating-related disorders and disturbances (Ackard, Fulkerson, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007; Ålgars, Santtila, & Sandnabba, 2010; Hudson et al., 2007; McFarland & Petrie, 2012; Tantleff-Dunn, Barnes, & Larose, 2011). Accordingly, we set out to examine the usefulness of negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances in South Asian American males and females. Purpose of the Present Study Given the concerns noted above, we conducted the present study to examine the usefulness of negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances; namely, drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction, in South Asian American males and females. We had three specific objectives: (a) to compare males and females on negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating disturbances; (b) to compare sex differences in the correlations between the present set of variables; and (c) to determine whether, beyond negative affectivity, contingencies of selfworth may predict eating disturbances in both males and females. Only two studies have been published that focus on eating disturbances in South Asian Americans (viz., Iyer & Haslam, 2003; Reddy & Crowther, 2007), and both involved female samples only. Thus, we had no empirical basis to make any strong predictions about possible sex differences involving this ethnic group. However, because differences in prevalence rates of eating disturbances have been found between males and females living in the United States (Hudson et al., 2007), we had some reason to expect that South Asian American females, compared with males, may also report greater eating disturbances (e.g., greater drive for thinness). In addition, given research identifying the presence of chronic negative mood in adult eating disturbances (Stice & Bearman, 2001), we expected negative affectivity to be positively associated with eating disturbances in both males and females. Finally, consistent with an additive approach, we expected to find that contingencies of self-worth would significantly add to, beyond negative affectivity, the prediction of eating disturbances in both males and females. Method Participants A total of 180 (83 males and 97 females) South Asian American students attending a large public university in the Midwest participated in the present study. Age ranged from 18 to 24 years, with a mean age of 19.47 (SD ⫽ 1.47) years. Most of the participants were South Asian Americans of Indian decent (90.6%). The remaining participants indicated they were descendants from Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Measures Negative affectivity. Negative affectivity was measured using the 10-item Negative Affect (NA) scale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Respondents are asked to rate how they feel for each negative affect item (e.g., “distressed,” “upset,” “nervous,” “afraid”) using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very slightly) to 5 (extremely). For the present study, instructions asked how respondents felt in general (i.e., “Indicate to what extent you generally feel this way, that is, how you feel on the average”) to get at dispositional negative affectivity, rather than at transient negative affect (Merz & Roesch, 2010). Evidence for the construct validity of the PANAS has been reported in Watson et al. (1988). In the present sample, internal reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was .84. Higher scores on PANAS-NA are indicative of greater negative affectivity. Contingencies of self-worth. To assess contingencies of selfworth, we used the CSWS (Crocker et al., 2003). The CSWS is a multidimensional measure that taps seven theoretically distinct sources of self-esteem; namely, others’ approval, appearance, competition, academic competence, family support, virtue, and God’s love. The Others’ Approval (CSWS-OA) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on how EATING DISTURBANCES IN SOUTH ASIAN AMERICANS others think of them (e.g., “My self-esteem depends on the opinions others hold of me”). The Appearance (CSWS-A) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on how attractive they feel and think about themselves (e.g., “When I think I look attractive, I feel good about myself”). The Competition (CSWS-C) subscales is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on how well they perform compared with others (e.g., “Doing better than others gives me a sense of self-respect”). The Academic Competence (CSWS-AC) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on academic achievement (e.g., “I feel better about myself when I know I’m doing well academically”). The Family Support (CSWS-FS) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on perceived family support (e.g., “Knowing that my family members love me makes me feel good about myself”). The Virtue (CSWS-V) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on how ethnical/moral they perceive themselves (e.g., “Whenever I follow my moral principles, my sense of self-respect gets a boost”). Finally, the God’s Love (CSWS-GL) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on perceived love obtained from God, based on the respondent’s interpretation of “God” (e.g., “My self-esteem goes up when I feel that God loves me”). For all CSWS subscales, respondents are asked to rate their agreement to statements based on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Evidence for the construct validity of the CSWS has been reported in Crocker et al. (2003). In the present sample, internal reliabilities as measured by Cronbach’s alpha were .66 (CSWS-OA), .66 (CSWSA), .85 (CSWS-C), .75 (CSWS-AC), .74 (CSWS-FS), .86 (CSWSV), and .96 (CSWS-GL). Although some of these reliabilities are lower than what has been found in studies of European American college students (Crocker et al., 2003), the pattern is generally consistent with past findings (e.g., lowest reliability found for CSWS-OA, highest reliability found for CSWS-GL). In general, higher scores on each of the CSWS subscales indicate greater levels of self-esteem within that particular domain. Eating disturbances. To assess eating disturbances, we used three subscales from the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983) to assess for drive for thinness ideal, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction. The Drive for Thinness (EDI-DFT) subscale is a 7-item measure that taps extreme concerns associated with dieting, preoccupation with weight, and pursuit of thinness (e.g., “I am preoccupied with the desire to be thinner”). The Bulimia (EDI-BUL) subscale is a 7-item measure that assesses for common bulimic symptoms (e.g., “I have gone on eating binges where I have felt that I could not stop”). Finally, the Body Dissatisfaction (EDI-BD) subscale is a 9-item measure that assesses concerns about the size or shape of certain body parts and areas (e.g., “I think that my hips are too big”). For all three EDI subscales, respondents are asked to rate their level of agreement to statements based on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). In the present sample, internal reliabilities as measured by Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .82 (EDI-BUL) to .89 (EDI-DFT). Evidence for the construct validity of the EDI subscales has been reported in Garner et al. (1983). In general, higher scores on each of the EDI subscales indicate greater levels of eating disturbance. 3 Procedure Participants were solicited through South Asian cultural organizations on campus (e.g., Indian American Student Organization). In order to participate, individuals had to be 18 years of age or older, be of South Asian heritage (i.e., be a descendant of those from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Maldives, or Bhutan), be born or have a primary residence in the US, and not be an international student. In the present sample, 52% of the participants (n ⫽ 96) indicated that they were born in the United States. A paper-and-pencil survey approved by the institutional review board that included the NA, CSWS, and EDI scales was given to all participants who met these criteria and were interested in participating in the study. Participants were not made aware of the purpose of the study until after the study was completed. Results To determine whether there were significant sex differences on measures of negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating disturbances in South Asian Americans, a series of independent t tests were conducted. The results of these tests comparing scores on the study measures between females and males are presented in Table 1. As the table shows, there was no significant difference in PANAS-NA scores between males and females. However, sex differences in the small to medium effect size range (d ⫽ .39 to .51) were found on 3 contingent dimensions of self-worth. Specifically, South Asian American females, compared with males, reported higher CSWS-OA scores, Ms ⫽ 19.62 versus 17.40, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 2.63, p ⬍ .01, CSWS-A scores, Ms ⫽ 22.73 versus 20.08, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 3.47, p ⬍ .001, and CSWS-AC scores, Ms ⫽ 28.16 versus 26.15, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 2.69, p ⬍ .01. Finally, sex differences near the medium effect size range (d ⫽ .47 to .49) were also found on 2 measures of eating disturbances. In line with our general expectations, females, compared with males, reported higher EDI-DFT scores, Ms ⫽ 19.79 versus 15.92, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 3.30, p ⬍ .001, and EDI-BD scores, Ms ⫽ 25.21 versus 21.44, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 3.14, p ⬍ .01. Taken together, these results indicate that there are important sex differences in self-worth and eating disturbances between South Asian American females and males. To take a closer look at potential sex differences in associations involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating disturbances between South Asian American males and females, we next computed zero-order correlations. The results of our computations are presented in Table 2. As this table shows, the associations between scores on the present set of measures were found to be quite similar for both males and females. However, some differences in the magnitude of the associations were found after converting correlations to Fisher’s z to compare the confidence interval on the difference between two independent correlations. For males, compared with females, significantly stronger associations were found involving PANAS-NA scores and CSWS-OA scores, (rs ⫽ .29 vs. .04, respectively, z ⫽ 1.70, p ⬍ .05), and CSWS-AC scores (rs ⫽ .39 vs. .16, respectively, z ⫽ 3.77, p ⬍ .001). In contrast, for females, compared with males, a significantly stronger association was found between EDI-BD and CSWS-A scores (rs ⫽ .36 vs. .04, respectively, z ⫽ 2.74, p ⬍ .001). Thus, it is interesting to note, for example, that although no CHANG, PERERA, AND KUPFERMANN 4 Table 1 South Asian American Sex Differences in Study Measures Sex Females Males Measure M SD M SD t(1, 178) Cohen’s d PANAS-NA CSWS-OA CSWS-A CSWS-C CSWS-AC CSWS-FS CSWS-V CSWS-GL EDI-DFT EDI-BUL EDI-BD 23.84 19.62 22.73 25.10 28.16 28.00 27.28 19.72 19.79 14.05 25.21 7.30 5.44 4.79 5.07 4.21 4.46 4.95 8.81 8.71 5.28 8.64 22.51 17.40 20.08 24.50 26.15 26.63 26.17 18.06 15.92 13.75 21.44 7.39 5.93 5.52 6.13 5.84 6.11 6.54 8.88 6.93 6.77 7.38 1.12 2.63ⴱⴱ 3.47ⴱⴱⴱ .73 2.69ⴱⴱ 1.75 1.31 1.26 3.30ⴱⴱⴱ .34 3.14ⴱⴱ .18 .39 .51 .11 .39 .26 .19 .19 .49 .05 .47 Note. PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval; A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence; FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction. For females, N ⫽ 97. For males, N ⫽ 83. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001. sex difference was found in negative affectivity, it appears to play a greater role in determining self-esteem in males than in females. Finally, to determine whether contingencies of self-worth add to accounting for eating disturbances beyond what may be accounted for by negative affectivity in South Asian American males and females, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses in predicting scores on each of EDI subscales used in the present study. For each regression model, PANAS-NA scores were entered in Step 1, followed by all seven subscales scores from the CSWS entered as a set in Step 2. Results of these regression analyses are presented in Tables 3 and 4, for females and males, respectively. To determine whether affectivity and contingencies of self-worth scores accounted for a small, medium, or large amount of the variance in eating distur- Table 2 Correlations Between all Study Measures for South Asian American Females (N ⫽ 97) and Males (N ⫽ 83) 1. PANAS-NA 2. CSWS-OA 3. CSWS-A 4. CSWS-CO 5. CSWS-AC 6. CSWS-FS 7. CSWS-V 8. CSWS-GL 9. EDI-DFT 10. EDI-BUL 11. EDI-BD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ⫺.04 .29 .07 .28ⴱⴱ .01 .23ⴱ ⫺.16 .39ⴱⴱⴱ ⫺.10 .14 .01 .16 .10 .07 .25ⴱⴱⴱ .00 .31ⴱⴱ .04 .31ⴱⴱ .02 .24ⴱ .49ⴱⴱⴱ .14 .19 .08 .27ⴱ .07 .18 ⫺.07 .00 ⫺.10 .13 .11 .02 .14 ⴚ.05 .11 .01 .10 .01 .26ⴱⴱ .16 .13 .17 .08 ⴚ.29ⴱⴱ .00 .02 .21ⴱ .05 .06 .06 .36ⴱⴱⴱ ⴚ.04 .27ⴱⴱ .59ⴱⴱⴱ .22ⴱ .22ⴱ .27ⴱⴱ .20 .19 .06 .19 ⴚ.12 .14 ⴚ.13 .20ⴱ .02 .33ⴱⴱⴱ .36ⴱⴱⴱ .39ⴱⴱⴱ .15 .18 .02 .00 ⴚ.16 ⫺.29ⴱⴱ .00 .04 ⴚ.04 .36ⴱⴱⴱ .34ⴱⴱ .05 .15 ⫺.24ⴱ ⴚ.33ⴱⴱ ⫺.40ⴱⴱⴱ ⴚ.23ⴱⴱ ⫺.18 ⴚ.23ⴱ .20ⴱ .25ⴱ .03 ⴚ.24ⴱ ⫺.14 ⴚ.23ⴱ .01 ⴚ.22ⴱ .27ⴱⴱ .10 ⫺.03 .09 .14 ⴚ.06 .32ⴱⴱⴱ .43ⴱⴱⴱ .68ⴱⴱⴱ .50ⴱⴱⴱ .34ⴱⴱⴱ .31ⴱⴱ Note. PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval; A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence; FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction. Correlations not in bold are for females. Correlations in bold are for males. ⴱ p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001. EATING DISTURBANCES IN SOUTH ASIAN AMERICANS Table 3 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of Variance in Eating Disturbances Accounted for by Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth in South Asian American Females (N ⫽ 97) Outcome and measure EDI-DFT Step 1: PANAS-NA Step 2: CSWS OA A C AC FS V GL EDI-BUL Step 1: PANAS-NA Step 2: CSWS OA A C AC FS V GL EDI-BD Step 1: PANAS-NA Step 2: CSWS OA A C AC FS V GL  .25ⴱⴱⴱ R2 ⌬R2 F p .06 .28 .21 6.52 3.74 ⬍.05 ⬍.001 .10 .35 .26 10.08 4.98 ⬍.01 ⬍.001 .10 .20ⴱ .18 ⫺.04 ⫺.32ⴱⴱ .06 .24ⴱ .31ⴱⴱ .13 .09 .26ⴱⴱ ⫺.24ⴱ ⫺.39ⴱⴱⴱ .04 ⫺.03 .31ⴱⴱ .10 .31 .21 10.29 3.88 ⬍.01 ⬍.001 .05 .34ⴱⴱⴱ .19 ⫺.01 ⫺.26ⴱⴱ .03 .10 Note. EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness; PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval; A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence; FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction. ⴱ p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001. bances, we used Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (f 2 ⫽ .02), medium (f 2 ⫽ .15), and large effects (f 2 ⫽ .35). For South Asian American females, PANAS-NA scores ( ⫽ .25) were found to account for a small (f 2 ⫽ .06) 6% of significant variance in EDI-DFT scores, F(1, 95) ⫽ 6.52, p ⬍ .05. When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .26) 21% of additional significant variance in EDI-DFT scores, F(7, 88) ⫽ 3.74, p ⬍ .001. Within this predictor set, family support ( ⫽ ⫺.32), God’s love ( ⫽ .24), and appearance ( ⫽ .20) were found to be significant and unique predictors of drive for thinness. In predicting bulimic symptoms, PANAS-NA scores ( ⫽ .31) were found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .11) 10% of significant variance in EDI-BUL scores, F(1, 95) ⫽ 10.08, p ⬍ .01. When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for a large (f 2 ⫽ .35) 26% of additional significant variance in EDI-BUL scores, F(7, 88) ⫽ 4.98, p ⬍ .001. Within this predictor set, family support ( ⫽ ⫺.39), competition ( ⫽ 5 .26), and academic competence ( ⫽ ⫺.24) were found to be significant and unique predictors of bulimic symptoms. Finally, in predicting body dissatisfaction, PANAS-NA scores ( ⫽ .31) were again found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .11) 10% of significant variance in EDI-BD scores, F(1, 95) ⫽ 10.29, p ⬍ .01. When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .26) 21% of additional significant variance in EDI-BD scores, F(7, 88) ⫽ 3.88, p ⬍ .001. Within this predictor set, appearance ( ⫽ .34) and family support ( ⫽ ⫺.26) were found to be significant and unique predictors of body dissatisfaction. For South Asian American males, PANAS-NA scores ( ⫽ .00) were found to account for 0% of the variance in EDI-DFT scores. When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .20) 17% of additional significant variance in EDI-DFT scores, F(7, 74) ⫽ 2.16, p ⬍ .05. Within this predictor set, family support ( ⫽ ⫺.28) was found to be a significant and unique predictor of drive for thinness. In predicting Table 4 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of Variance in Eating Disturbances Accounted for by Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth in South Asian American Males (N ⫽ 83) Outcome and measure EDI-DFT Step 1: PANAS-NA Step 2: CSWS OA A C AC FS V GL EDI-BUL Step 1: PANAS-NA Step 2: CSWS OA A C AC FS V GL EDI-BD Step 1: PANAS-NA Step 2: CSWS OA A C AC FS V GL  R2 ⌬R2 F p .00 .00 .17 .17 .00 2.16 ns ⬍.05 .00 .14 .14 .10 1.75 ns ns .00 .10 .10 .10 1.19 ns ns .04 .01 ⫺.02 ⫺.06 ⫺.28ⴱ ⫺.19 .18 .04 ⫺.09 .03 ⫺.17 .20 ⫺.22 ⫺.19 .19 .02 .07 ⫺.13 .08 ⫺.01 ⫺.19 ⫺.23 .01 Note. EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness; ns ⫽ nonsignificant; PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval; A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence; FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction. ⴱ p ⬍ .05. CHANG, PERERA, AND KUPFERMANN 6 bulimic symptoms, PANAS-NA scores ( ⫽ .04) were found to account for 0% of the variance in EDI-BUL scores. When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .16) 14% of additional variance in EDI-BUL scores, but this was not significant, F(7, 74) ⫽ 1.75, ns. No significant unique predictor emerged from within this predictor set. Finally, in predicting body dissatisfaction, PANAS-NA scores ( ⫽ .02) were again found to account for 0% of the variance in EDI-BD scores. When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .11) 10% of additional variance in EDI-DFT scores, but this was not significant, F(7, 74) ⫽ 1.19, ns. Again, no significant unique predictor emerged from within this predictor set. Overall, the results of our regression analyses in the present sample of South Asian Americans indicate that negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth, especially lack of family support, are important predictors of eating disturbances in females, but are less important in predicting eating disturbances in males. Discussion We conducted the present study to examine for possible sex differences between South Asian American females and males involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating disturbances. Based on our comparative findings, both similarities and differences emerged between females and males. For example, consistent with past findings based on general college student samples (e.g., Watson et al., 1998), we found no evidence of sex differences on negative affectivity in our sample of South Asian Americans. Interestingly, although Crocker et al. (2003) found no evidence of sex differences using the CSWS in diverse racial/ethnic groups, including Asian Americans, some differences were found in the present study of South Asian Americans. Specifically, this study found that females, compared with males, were more likely to have a sense of self-worth that was based on their experiences of others’ approval, how attractive they felt, and how well they were achieving academic goals. Accordingly, these divergent findings point to a possible need for researchers to distinguish between general Asian American and South Asian American populations when investigating sex differences in constructs associated with self-worth. Finally, we found sex differences on 2 out of 3 EDI scales. Specifically, females, compared with males, were more inclined to have a strong desire to be thin and more dissatisfied with various aspects of their physical features. No sex difference emerged, however, on bulimic symptoms. Noteworthy, Garner et al. (1983) found that female college students reported scores two times greater than male students in their study (EDI-BUL averaged score Ms ⫽ 2.0 vs. 1.0, respectively). In the present sample, the EDI-BUL averaged score Ms for females, compared with males, were 2.01 versus 1.96, respectively. Thus, taken together, these findings suggest that South Asian American males are more likely than non-South Asian American males to endorse bulimic symptoms, albeit still well below levels found in patients suffering from bulimia (Garner et al., 1983). In addition, we found similarities in the correlation pattern involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating disturbances between South Asian American females and males. For example, for both sexes, the associations were both positive and highly significant among the three indices of eating disturbance examined in the present study. In contrast, there were also some stark differences found in the present study. Specifically, consistent with current research and theory on eating dysfunction (e.g., Downey & Chang, 2007; Stice et al., 2001; Stice et al., 2008), we predicted that negative affectivity would be positively associated with eating disturbances in both sexes. Indeed, for females, we found that greater negative affectivity was significantly associated with greater drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction. Unexpectedly, however, this was not the case for males. For this group, negative affectivity was found to have no reliable association with any of the eating disturbance outcomes examined in the present study. Accordingly, it would be useful in future research to try and better understand whether and how negative affectivity is involved in other important psychological outcomes and processes (e.g., coping) in South Asian American males. Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth as Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian Americans To determine whether or not contingencies of self-worth would be, beyond negative affectivity, an important predictor of eating disturbances, we conducted a series of regression analyses for South Asian American females and males. For females, findings from these analyses indicated that beyond negative affectivity, which was found to account for a small to medium amount of the variance in each of the three eating disturbance outcomes, contingencies of self-worth accounted for a medium to large amount of the variance in drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction. Noteworthy, a sense of self-worth involving low family support consistently emerged as the strongest, or next to strongest, unique predictor within the self-worth predictor set, followed by a sense of self-worth involving greater perceptions of personal attractiveness as a unique predictor of a greater drive for thinness and greater body dissatisfaction. Thus, these findings may be taken to suggest that efforts to reduce eating disturbances in females may benefit from interventions that seek to both diminish experiences of chronic negative affect and lessen perceptions of self-worth that are based excessively on family support and appearance. Indeed, a recent review of studies examining the effectiveness of family based interventions for managing eating dysfunctions have pointed to the promising value of treatments that focus on psychoeducation about the sociocultural context of eating behaviors and promoting positive family communication (Kaslow, Broth, Smith, & Collins, 2012). Relatedly, given research linking teasing and cultural conflict with greater eating disturbances in South Asian American females (Iyer & Haslam, 2003; Reddy & Crowther, 2007), it may also be useful to assess for the presence of appearance-related teasing and family/parent conflict when working with this group. Alternatively, for South Asian American males, findings from our regression analyses indicated that negative affectivity did not account for any significant amount of variance in eating disturbances. This is consistent with our earlier correlational results. Interestingly, although contingencies of self-worth was found, beyond negative affectivity, to account for a medium, albeit nonsignificant, amount of the variance in each of the eating distur- EATING DISTURBANCES IN SOUTH ASIAN AMERICANS bance outcomes, only a sense of self-worth involving low family support was found to be a unique predictor of a drive for thinness in this group. Although it is not clear why negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth did not play a significant a role in predicting eating disturbances in males, our findings do make one thing clear; namely, a need to consider additional explanatory variables for understanding eating disturbances in this group (e.g., lack of positive affectivity, perfectionism; Downey & Chang, 2007). Moreover, given the high prevalence rate of Type 2 diabetes among males of South Asian heritage, compared with those of European heritage (Bhopal et al., 1999), it may also be useful to examine prediction models that look at other eating behaviors and outcomes (e.g., dietary habits, obesity; Lawton et al., 2008). Some Limitations of the Present Study Beyond these considerations, it is worth mentioning some limitations of the present study. First, the focus of our study was on South Asian Americans. However, our sample was composed of mostly Indian Americans. Because South Asian Americans are represented by diverse subgroups (e.g., Pakistanian Americans, Sri Lankan Americans), it would be important to evaluate the generalizability of the present findings to more specific South Asian American ethnic groups, including those drawn from community samples. Second, our study focused on sex differences in negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances in South Asian Americans. It would be interesting to determine whether these variables predict clinically severe levels of disordered eating, as well as other important outcomes (e.g., depressive symptoms, academic achievement) in South Asian Americans and whether sex differences emerge in the prediction models. Third, although we limited our study to South Asian Americans (i.e., individuals of South Asian heritage that were born and/or living in the US), it would be interesting to determine if the present set of results can be generalized to individuals living in South Asian countries (cf. Reddy & Crowther, 2007). Finally, given the crosssectional nature of the present study, it would be important in future studies to use longitudinal designs that can help clarify the causal associations involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating disturbances in South Asian Americans. Concluding Thoughts In summary, we examined for sex differences in negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances in South Asian Americans. We found that negative affectivity was an important predictor of eating disturbances in females, but not in males. 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