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Asian American Journal of Psychology
Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian
American Females and Males: A Look at Negative
Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth
Edward C. Chang, Marisa J. Perera, and Yvonne Kupfermann
Online First Publication, March 25, 2013. doi: 10.1037/a0031627
CITATION
Chang, E. C., Perera, M. J., & Kupfermann, Y. (2013, March 25). Predictors of Eating
Disturbances in South Asian American Females and Males: A Look at Negative Affectivity
and Contingencies of Self-Worth. Asian American Journal of Psychology. Advance online
publication. doi: 10.1037/a0031627
Asian American Journal of Psychology
2013, Vol. 4, No. 1, 000
© 2013 American Psychological Association
1948-1985/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0031627
Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian American Females and
Males: A Look at Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth
Edward C. Chang, Marisa J. Perera, and Yvonne Kupfermann
University of Michigan
In the present study, we looked at sex differences in negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth
as predictors of eating disturbances (viz., drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction)
in a South Asian American sample of 97 females and 83 males. Females, compared with males, were
found to report greater self-worth involving others’ approval, appearance, academic competition, and
greater drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Results of conducting hierarchical regression analyses
indicated that for females, negative affectivity accounted for significant variance in each of the three
eating disturbance outcomes. Furthermore, the inclusion of contingencies of self-worth was found to
account for additional unique variance in eating disturbances within this group. In contrast, regression
results obtained for males generally failed to support the utility of a prediction model of eating
disturbances involving negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth. Implications of the present
findings for understanding sex differences in eating disturbances in South Asian Americans are
discussed.
Keywords: South Asian Americans, eating disturbances, sex differences, contingencies of self-worth
study South Asian Americans apart from other Asian American
groups. Given the dearth of empirical research in the extent
psychological literature focusing on South Asian Americans, it
is not surprising that very little is currently known about this
population, including an understanding of basic psychological
conditions and associated processes in this ethnic group. In the
present study we focus on one important but neglected area of
study in understanding South Asian Americans; namely, eatingrelated dysfunctions.
South Asian Americans or Americans of South Asian heritage
(e.g., India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) make up one of the largest
segments of the Asian population living in the United States.
According to the 2000 U.S. Census (Barnes & Bennett, 2002),
after Chinese Americans, Indian Americans represent one of the
next largest groups of Asian Americans living in the United States,
with an estimated 1.9 million individuals. Yet, it is interesting to
note that much of the research focusing on Asians, including
Asian Americans, has been limited to studies of individuals of
Far East Asian heritage (e.g., China, Korea, Japan; Chang &
Asakawa, 2003; Chen et al., 2009; Choi, 2002; Fung & You,
2011; Hofstetter et al., 2010; So Kim, Kim, Ho Cha, & Lim,
2007; Uchida & Kitayama, 2009; Yip, 2009). This may be
problematic in that findings comparing Far East Asians and
South Asians have indicated important group differences. For
example, using data from the National Latino and Asian American Study, Tummala-Narra, Alegria, and Chen (2012) found
that South Asian Americans tended to experience significantly
different levels of discrimination and acculturative stress than
was found among most Far East Asian Americans (e.g., Chinese
Americans, Korean Americans, Japanese Americans). Such
findings suggest that it would be both meaningful and useful to
Eating Disturbances, Negative Affectivity, and
Contingencies of Self-Worth
Eating disturbances and disorders (e.g., anorexia, bulimia, body
dissatisfaction) have been estimated to affect millions of individuals in the United States alone, and research findings indicate that
the incidence of these disorders has been growing over the past
several decades (e.g., Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007;
Lucas, Beard, O’Fallon, & Kurland, 1991). Eating disturbances
have been associated with other negative outcomes and disorders,
ranging from depression (e.g., Benas & Gibb, 2008; Minarik &
Ahrens, 1996; Rawana, Morgan, Nguyen, & Craig, 2010; Stice
& Bearman, 2001; Wildes, Simons, & Marcus, 2005), anxiety
(e.g., Anestis, Holm-Denoma, Gordon, Schmidt, & Joiner,
2008; Levinson & Rodebaugh, 2012; Pallister & Waller, 2008),
stress (e.g., Freeman & Yacono, 2004; Wolff, Crosby, Roberts,
& Wittrock, 2000), to suicide risk and mortality (e.g., Arcelus,
Mitchell, Wales, & Nielsen, 2011; Button, Chadalavada, &
Palmer, 2010; Franko & Keel, 2006).
Given these findings, it is not surprising that one central
variable that has been consistently linked to eating disturbances
has been the disposition to experience chronic negative mood or
negative affectivity (e.g., Ansell, Grilo, & White, 2012; Engelberg, Steiger, Gauvin, & Wonderlich, 2007; Hutchinson, Rapee,
Edward C. Chang, Marisa J. Perera, and Yvonne Kupfermann, Department of
Psychology, University of Michigan.
Part of this research was supported by a Psi Chi/APS Summer Research
Grant awarded to the second author, under the sponsorship of first author.
The first author would like to thank Chang Suk-Choon and Tae MyungSook for their encouragement and support throughout this project.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edward
C. Chang, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church
Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail: [email protected]
1
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CHANG, PERERA, AND KUPFERMANN
& Taylor, 2010; Lyubomirsky, Casper, & Sousa, 2001; Masheb
& Grilo, 2008; Schulz & Laessle, 2010; Stice et al., 2001; Stice,
Bohon, Marti, & Fischer, 2008; Suisman, Slane, Burt, &
Klump, 2008). For example, in a recent study examining the
link between personality factors and eating disturbances (viz.,
drive for thinness & bulimic symptoms) in a sample of 307
female college students, Downey and Chang (2007) found that
negative affectivity was not only significantly associated with
greater experiences of eating disturbances, but it also served to
mediate the personality-eating disturbance link. Yet, there is reason
to consider other individual-differences variables in addition to negative affectivity. Specifically, a number of studies have also shown
that having low global self-esteem may play a key role in the
development of eating disturbances (e.g., Barker & Bornstein,
2010; Dunkley & Grilo, 2007; Fitzpatrick, Lesser, Brandenburg, &
Lesser, 2011; Gual et al., 2002; O’dea, 2004), with findings from
some studies pointing to the potential value of looking at more
specific facets of self-esteem (e.g., appearance-based esteem;
Geller et al., 1998; Mendelson, McLaren, Gauvin, & Steiger,
2002).
According to Crocker and colleagues (Crocker, 2002; Crocker,
Luhtanen, Cooper, & Bouvrette, 2003; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001),
adult self-esteem, as measured by the Contingencies of Self-Worth
Scale (CSWS; Crocker et al., 2003), is best represented as a
multidimensional construct that is composed of distinguishable
dimensions linked to distinct psychosocial domains (viz., others’ approval, appearance, competition, competence, family
support, virtue, and God’s love). Thus, the model and measure
of contingent self-worth proffered by Crocker and colleagues
offers a mean for identifying dimensions of self-esteem that
may be most relevant for understanding eating disturbances in
adults. Yet, no study has examined the extent to which, beyond
negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth may play a key
role in accounting for eating disturbances in adults, including
South Asian Americans (cf. Iyer & Haslam, 2003; Reddy &
Crowther, 2007). Moreover, because the majority of the studies
conducted on eating disturbances have often been limited to
females, it would be important to determine whether sex differences are present by studying both males and females. Although the prevalence rates for eating dysfunctions have been
found to be much higher in females than males, males remain at
risk for eating-related disorders and disturbances (Ackard,
Fulkerson, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007; Ålgars, Santtila, &
Sandnabba, 2010; Hudson et al., 2007; McFarland & Petrie,
2012; Tantleff-Dunn, Barnes, & Larose, 2011). Accordingly,
we set out to examine the usefulness of negative affectivity and
contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances
in South Asian American males and females.
Purpose of the Present Study
Given the concerns noted above, we conducted the present
study to examine the usefulness of negative affectivity and
contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances;
namely, drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction, in South Asian American males and females. We
had three specific objectives: (a) to compare males and females
on negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and eating
disturbances; (b) to compare sex differences in the correlations
between the present set of variables; and (c) to determine
whether, beyond negative affectivity, contingencies of selfworth may predict eating disturbances in both males and females.
Only two studies have been published that focus on eating
disturbances in South Asian Americans (viz., Iyer & Haslam,
2003; Reddy & Crowther, 2007), and both involved female samples only. Thus, we had no empirical basis to make any strong
predictions about possible sex differences involving this ethnic
group. However, because differences in prevalence rates of eating
disturbances have been found between males and females living in
the United States (Hudson et al., 2007), we had some reason to
expect that South Asian American females, compared with males,
may also report greater eating disturbances (e.g., greater drive for
thinness). In addition, given research identifying the presence of
chronic negative mood in adult eating disturbances (Stice & Bearman, 2001), we expected negative affectivity to be positively
associated with eating disturbances in both males and females.
Finally, consistent with an additive approach, we expected to find
that contingencies of self-worth would significantly add to, beyond
negative affectivity, the prediction of eating disturbances in both
males and females.
Method
Participants
A total of 180 (83 males and 97 females) South Asian American
students attending a large public university in the Midwest participated in the present study. Age ranged from 18 to 24 years, with
a mean age of 19.47 (SD ⫽ 1.47) years. Most of the participants
were South Asian Americans of Indian decent (90.6%). The
remaining participants indicated they were descendants from
Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
Measures
Negative affectivity. Negative affectivity was measured using
the 10-item Negative Affect (NA) scale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen,
1988). Respondents are asked to rate how they feel for each
negative affect item (e.g., “distressed,” “upset,” “nervous,”
“afraid”) using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very
slightly) to 5 (extremely). For the present study, instructions asked
how respondents felt in general (i.e., “Indicate to what extent you
generally feel this way, that is, how you feel on the average”) to
get at dispositional negative affectivity, rather than at transient
negative affect (Merz & Roesch, 2010). Evidence for the construct
validity of the PANAS has been reported in Watson et al. (1988).
In the present sample, internal reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was .84. Higher scores on PANAS-NA are indicative
of greater negative affectivity.
Contingencies of self-worth. To assess contingencies of selfworth, we used the CSWS (Crocker et al., 2003). The CSWS is a
multidimensional measure that taps seven theoretically distinct
sources of self-esteem; namely, others’ approval, appearance,
competition, academic competence, family support, virtue, and
God’s love. The Others’ Approval (CSWS-OA) subscale is a
5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on how
EATING DISTURBANCES IN SOUTH ASIAN AMERICANS
others think of them (e.g., “My self-esteem depends on the opinions others hold of me”). The Appearance (CSWS-A) subscale is
a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on how
attractive they feel and think about themselves (e.g., “When I think
I look attractive, I feel good about myself”). The Competition
(CSWS-C) subscales is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s
self-esteem on how well they perform compared with others (e.g.,
“Doing better than others gives me a sense of self-respect”). The
Academic Competence (CSWS-AC) subscale is a 5-item measure
that bases an individual’s self-esteem on academic achievement
(e.g., “I feel better about myself when I know I’m doing well
academically”). The Family Support (CSWS-FS) subscale is a
5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on perceived
family support (e.g., “Knowing that my family members love me
makes me feel good about myself”). The Virtue (CSWS-V) subscale is a 5-item measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on
how ethnical/moral they perceive themselves (e.g., “Whenever I
follow my moral principles, my sense of self-respect gets a
boost”). Finally, the God’s Love (CSWS-GL) subscale is a 5-item
measure that bases an individual’s self-esteem on perceived love
obtained from God, based on the respondent’s interpretation of
“God” (e.g., “My self-esteem goes up when I feel that God loves
me”). For all CSWS subscales, respondents are asked to rate their
agreement to statements based on a 7-point Likert-type scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Evidence
for the construct validity of the CSWS has been reported in
Crocker et al. (2003). In the present sample, internal reliabilities as
measured by Cronbach’s alpha were .66 (CSWS-OA), .66 (CSWSA), .85 (CSWS-C), .75 (CSWS-AC), .74 (CSWS-FS), .86 (CSWSV), and .96 (CSWS-GL). Although some of these reliabilities are
lower than what has been found in studies of European American
college students (Crocker et al., 2003), the pattern is generally
consistent with past findings (e.g., lowest reliability found for
CSWS-OA, highest reliability found for CSWS-GL). In general,
higher scores on each of the CSWS subscales indicate greater
levels of self-esteem within that particular domain.
Eating disturbances. To assess eating disturbances, we used
three subscales from the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner,
Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983) to assess for drive for thinness ideal,
bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction. The Drive for Thinness (EDI-DFT) subscale is a 7-item measure that taps extreme
concerns associated with dieting, preoccupation with weight, and
pursuit of thinness (e.g., “I am preoccupied with the desire to be
thinner”). The Bulimia (EDI-BUL) subscale is a 7-item measure
that assesses for common bulimic symptoms (e.g., “I have gone on
eating binges where I have felt that I could not stop”). Finally, the
Body Dissatisfaction (EDI-BD) subscale is a 9-item measure that
assesses concerns about the size or shape of certain body parts and
areas (e.g., “I think that my hips are too big”). For all three EDI
subscales, respondents are asked to rate their level of agreement to
statements based on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(never) to 6 (always). In the present sample, internal reliabilities as
measured by Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .82 (EDI-BUL) to .89
(EDI-DFT). Evidence for the construct validity of the EDI subscales has been reported in Garner et al. (1983). In general, higher
scores on each of the EDI subscales indicate greater levels of
eating disturbance.
3
Procedure
Participants were solicited through South Asian cultural organizations on campus (e.g., Indian American Student Organization).
In order to participate, individuals had to be 18 years of age or
older, be of South Asian heritage (i.e., be a descendant of those
from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Maldives, or
Bhutan), be born or have a primary residence in the US, and not be
an international student. In the present sample, 52% of the participants (n ⫽ 96) indicated that they were born in the United States.
A paper-and-pencil survey approved by the institutional review
board that included the NA, CSWS, and EDI scales was given to
all participants who met these criteria and were interested in
participating in the study. Participants were not made aware of the
purpose of the study until after the study was completed.
Results
To determine whether there were significant sex differences on
measures of negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and
eating disturbances in South Asian Americans, a series of independent t tests were conducted. The results of these tests comparing scores on the study measures between females and males are
presented in Table 1. As the table shows, there was no significant
difference in PANAS-NA scores between males and females.
However, sex differences in the small to medium effect size range
(d ⫽ .39 to .51) were found on 3 contingent dimensions of
self-worth. Specifically, South Asian American females, compared
with males, reported higher CSWS-OA scores, Ms ⫽ 19.62 versus
17.40, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 2.63, p ⬍ .01, CSWS-A scores,
Ms ⫽ 22.73 versus 20.08, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 3.47, p ⬍ .001,
and CSWS-AC scores, Ms ⫽ 28.16 versus 26.15, respectively,
t(178) ⫽ 2.69, p ⬍ .01. Finally, sex differences near the medium
effect size range (d ⫽ .47 to .49) were also found on 2 measures
of eating disturbances. In line with our general expectations,
females, compared with males, reported higher EDI-DFT
scores, Ms ⫽ 19.79 versus 15.92, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 3.30, p
⬍ .001, and EDI-BD scores, Ms ⫽ 25.21 versus 21.44, respectively, t(178) ⫽ 3.14, p ⬍ .01. Taken together, these results
indicate that there are important sex differences in self-worth and
eating disturbances between South Asian American females and
males.
To take a closer look at potential sex differences in associations
involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and
eating disturbances between South Asian American males and
females, we next computed zero-order correlations. The results of
our computations are presented in Table 2. As this table shows, the
associations between scores on the present set of measures were found
to be quite similar for both males and females. However, some
differences in the magnitude of the associations were found after
converting correlations to Fisher’s z to compare the confidence
interval on the difference between two independent correlations.
For males, compared with females, significantly stronger associations were found involving PANAS-NA scores and CSWS-OA
scores, (rs ⫽ .29 vs. .04, respectively, z ⫽ 1.70, p ⬍ .05), and
CSWS-AC scores (rs ⫽ .39 vs. .16, respectively, z ⫽ 3.77, p ⬍
.001). In contrast, for females, compared with males, a significantly stronger association was found between EDI-BD and
CSWS-A scores (rs ⫽ .36 vs. .04, respectively, z ⫽ 2.74, p ⬍
.001). Thus, it is interesting to note, for example, that although no
CHANG, PERERA, AND KUPFERMANN
4
Table 1
South Asian American Sex Differences in Study Measures
Sex
Females
Males
Measure
M
SD
M
SD
t(1, 178)
Cohen’s d
PANAS-NA
CSWS-OA
CSWS-A
CSWS-C
CSWS-AC
CSWS-FS
CSWS-V
CSWS-GL
EDI-DFT
EDI-BUL
EDI-BD
23.84
19.62
22.73
25.10
28.16
28.00
27.28
19.72
19.79
14.05
25.21
7.30
5.44
4.79
5.07
4.21
4.46
4.95
8.81
8.71
5.28
8.64
22.51
17.40
20.08
24.50
26.15
26.63
26.17
18.06
15.92
13.75
21.44
7.39
5.93
5.52
6.13
5.84
6.11
6.54
8.88
6.93
6.77
7.38
1.12
2.63ⴱⴱ
3.47ⴱⴱⴱ
.73
2.69ⴱⴱ
1.75
1.31
1.26
3.30ⴱⴱⴱ
.34
3.14ⴱⴱ
.18
.39
.51
.11
.39
.26
.19
.19
.49
.05
.47
Note. PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of
Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval; A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence;
FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for
Thinness; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction. For females, N ⫽ 97. For males, N ⫽ 83.
ⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.
sex difference was found in negative affectivity, it appears to play a
greater role in determining self-esteem in males than in females.
Finally, to determine whether contingencies of self-worth add
to accounting for eating disturbances beyond what may be
accounted for by negative affectivity in South Asian American
males and females, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses in predicting scores on each of EDI subscales
used in the present study. For each regression model,
PANAS-NA scores were entered in Step 1, followed by all
seven subscales scores from the CSWS entered as a set in Step 2.
Results of these regression analyses are presented in Tables 3 and
4, for females and males, respectively. To determine whether
affectivity and contingencies of self-worth scores accounted for a
small, medium, or large amount of the variance in eating distur-
Table 2
Correlations Between all Study Measures for South Asian American Females (N ⫽ 97) and
Males (N ⫽ 83)
1. PANAS-NA
2. CSWS-OA
3. CSWS-A
4. CSWS-CO
5. CSWS-AC
6. CSWS-FS
7. CSWS-V
8. CSWS-GL
9. EDI-DFT
10. EDI-BUL
11. EDI-BD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
⫺.04
.29
.07
.28ⴱⴱ
.01
.23ⴱ
⫺.16
.39ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.10
.14
.01
.16
.10
.07
.25ⴱⴱⴱ
.00
.31ⴱⴱ
.04
.31ⴱⴱ
.02
.24ⴱ
.49ⴱⴱⴱ
.14
.19
.08
.27ⴱ
.07
.18
⫺.07
.00
⫺.10
.13
.11
.02
.14
ⴚ.05
.11
.01
.10
.01
.26ⴱⴱ
.16
.13
.17
.08
ⴚ.29ⴱⴱ
.00
.02
.21ⴱ
.05
.06
.06
.36ⴱⴱⴱ
ⴚ.04
.27ⴱⴱ
.59ⴱⴱⴱ
.22ⴱ
.22ⴱ
.27ⴱⴱ
.20
.19
.06
.19
ⴚ.12
.14
ⴚ.13
.20ⴱ
.02
.33ⴱⴱⴱ
.36ⴱⴱⴱ
.39ⴱⴱⴱ
.15
.18
.02
.00
ⴚ.16
⫺.29ⴱⴱ
.00
.04
ⴚ.04
.36ⴱⴱⴱ
.34ⴱⴱ
.05
.15
⫺.24ⴱ
ⴚ.33ⴱⴱ
⫺.40ⴱⴱⴱ
ⴚ.23ⴱⴱ
⫺.18
ⴚ.23ⴱ
.20ⴱ
.25ⴱ
.03
ⴚ.24ⴱ
⫺.14
ⴚ.23ⴱ
.01
ⴚ.22ⴱ
.27ⴱⴱ
.10
⫺.03
.09
.14
ⴚ.06
.32ⴱⴱⴱ
.43ⴱⴱⴱ
.68ⴱⴱⴱ
.50ⴱⴱⴱ
.34ⴱⴱⴱ
.31ⴱⴱ
Note. PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval;
A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence; FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder
Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction. Correlations not in bold are for females. Correlations in bold are for
males.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.
EATING DISTURBANCES IN SOUTH ASIAN AMERICANS
Table 3
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of
Variance in Eating Disturbances Accounted for by Negative
Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth in South Asian
American
Females (N ⫽ 97)
Outcome and measure
EDI-DFT
Step 1: PANAS-NA
Step 2: CSWS
OA
A
C
AC
FS
V
GL
EDI-BUL
Step 1: PANAS-NA
Step 2: CSWS
OA
A
C
AC
FS
V
GL
EDI-BD
Step 1: PANAS-NA
Step 2: CSWS
OA
A
C
AC
FS
V
GL
␤
.25ⴱⴱⴱ
R2
⌬R2
F
p
.06
.28
.21
6.52
3.74
⬍.05
⬍.001
.10
.35
.26
10.08
4.98
⬍.01
⬍.001
.10
.20ⴱ
.18
⫺.04
⫺.32ⴱⴱ
.06
.24ⴱ
.31ⴱⴱ
.13
.09
.26ⴱⴱ
⫺.24ⴱ
⫺.39ⴱⴱⴱ
.04
⫺.03
.31ⴱⴱ
.10
.31
.21
10.29
3.88
⬍.01
⬍.001
.05
.34ⴱⴱⴱ
.19
⫺.01
⫺.26ⴱⴱ
.03
.10
Note. EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness;
PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Negative Affect;
CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale; OA ⫽ Others’ Approval;
A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽ Academic Competence; FS ⫽
Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s Love; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽
Body Dissatisfaction.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.
bances, we used Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (f 2 ⫽ .02),
medium (f 2 ⫽ .15), and large effects (f 2 ⫽ .35).
For South Asian American females, PANAS-NA scores (␤ ⫽ .25)
were found to account for a small (f 2 ⫽ .06) 6% of significant
variance in EDI-DFT scores, F(1, 95) ⫽ 6.52, p ⬍ .05. When
CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found
to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .26) 21% of additional significant variance in EDI-DFT scores, F(7, 88) ⫽ 3.74, p ⬍ .001.
Within this predictor set, family support (␤ ⫽ ⫺.32), God’s
love (␤ ⫽ .24), and appearance (␤ ⫽ .20) were found to be
significant and unique predictors of drive for thinness. In predicting bulimic symptoms, PANAS-NA scores (␤ ⫽ .31) were
found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .11) 10% of significant
variance in EDI-BUL scores, F(1, 95) ⫽ 10.08, p ⬍ .01. When
CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to
account for a large (f 2 ⫽ .35) 26% of additional significant
variance in EDI-BUL scores, F(7, 88) ⫽ 4.98, p ⬍ .001. Within
this predictor set, family support (␤ ⫽ ⫺.39), competition (␤ ⫽
5
.26), and academic competence (␤ ⫽ ⫺.24) were found to be
significant and unique predictors of bulimic symptoms. Finally, in
predicting body dissatisfaction, PANAS-NA scores (␤ ⫽ .31) were
again found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .11) 10% of significant
variance in EDI-BD scores, F(1, 95) ⫽ 10.29, p ⬍ .01. When
CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were found to
account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .26) 21% of additional significant
variance in EDI-BD scores, F(7, 88) ⫽ 3.88, p ⬍ .001. Within this
predictor set, appearance (␤ ⫽ .34) and family support (␤ ⫽ ⫺.26)
were found to be significant and unique predictors of body dissatisfaction.
For South Asian American males, PANAS-NA scores (␤ ⫽ .00)
were found to account for 0% of the variance in EDI-DFT scores.
When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were
found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .20) 17% of additional
significant variance in EDI-DFT scores, F(7, 74) ⫽ 2.16, p ⬍ .05.
Within this predictor set, family support (␤ ⫽ ⫺.28) was found to be
a significant and unique predictor of drive for thinness. In predicting
Table 4
Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of
Variance in Eating Disturbances Accounted for by Negative
Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth in South Asian
American
Males (N ⫽ 83)
Outcome and measure
EDI-DFT
Step 1: PANAS-NA
Step 2: CSWS
OA
A
C
AC
FS
V
GL
EDI-BUL
Step 1: PANAS-NA
Step 2: CSWS
OA
A
C
AC
FS
V
GL
EDI-BD
Step 1: PANAS-NA
Step 2: CSWS
OA
A
C
AC
FS
V
GL
␤
R2
⌬R2
F
p
.00
.00
.17
.17
.00
2.16
ns
⬍.05
.00
.14
.14
.10
1.75
ns
ns
.00
.10
.10
.10
1.19
ns
ns
.04
.01
⫺.02
⫺.06
⫺.28ⴱ
⫺.19
.18
.04
⫺.09
.03
⫺.17
.20
⫺.22
⫺.19
.19
.02
.07
⫺.13
.08
⫺.01
⫺.19
⫺.23
.01
Note. EDI ⫽ Eating Disorder Inventory; DFT ⫽ Drive for Thinness;
ns ⫽ nonsignificant; PANAS-NA ⫽ Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule-Negative Affect; CSWS ⫽ Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale;
OA ⫽ Others’ Approval; A ⫽ Appearance; C ⫽ Competition; AC ⫽
Academic Competence; FS ⫽ Family Support; V ⫽ Virtue; GL ⫽ God’s
Love; BUL ⫽ Bulimia; BD ⫽ Body Dissatisfaction.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05.
CHANG, PERERA, AND KUPFERMANN
6
bulimic symptoms, PANAS-NA scores (␤ ⫽ .04) were found to
account for 0% of the variance in EDI-BUL scores. When CSWS
scores were entered in the second step, they were found to account for
a medium (f 2 ⫽ .16) 14% of additional variance in EDI-BUL scores,
but this was not significant, F(7, 74) ⫽ 1.75, ns. No significant unique
predictor emerged from within this predictor set. Finally, in predicting
body dissatisfaction, PANAS-NA scores (␤ ⫽ .02) were again
found to account for 0% of the variance in EDI-BD scores.
When CSWS scores were entered in the second step, they were
found to account for a medium (f 2 ⫽ .11) 10% of additional
variance in EDI-DFT scores, but this was not significant, F(7,
74) ⫽ 1.19, ns. Again, no significant unique predictor emerged
from within this predictor set.
Overall, the results of our regression analyses in the present
sample of South Asian Americans indicate that negative affectivity
and contingencies of self-worth, especially lack of family support,
are important predictors of eating disturbances in females, but are
less important in predicting eating disturbances in males.
Discussion
We conducted the present study to examine for possible sex
differences between South Asian American females and males
involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and
eating disturbances. Based on our comparative findings, both
similarities and differences emerged between females and males.
For example, consistent with past findings based on general college student samples (e.g., Watson et al., 1998), we found no
evidence of sex differences on negative affectivity in our sample of
South Asian Americans. Interestingly, although Crocker et al.
(2003) found no evidence of sex differences using the CSWS in
diverse racial/ethnic groups, including Asian Americans, some
differences were found in the present study of South Asian Americans. Specifically, this study found that females, compared with
males, were more likely to have a sense of self-worth that was
based on their experiences of others’ approval, how attractive they
felt, and how well they were achieving academic goals. Accordingly, these divergent findings point to a possible need for researchers to distinguish between general Asian American and
South Asian American populations when investigating sex differences in constructs associated with self-worth. Finally, we found
sex differences on 2 out of 3 EDI scales. Specifically, females,
compared with males, were more inclined to have a strong desire
to be thin and more dissatisfied with various aspects of their
physical features. No sex difference emerged, however, on bulimic
symptoms. Noteworthy, Garner et al. (1983) found that female
college students reported scores two times greater than male students in their study (EDI-BUL averaged score Ms ⫽ 2.0 vs. 1.0,
respectively). In the present sample, the EDI-BUL averaged score
Ms for females, compared with males, were 2.01 versus 1.96,
respectively. Thus, taken together, these findings suggest that
South Asian American males are more likely than non-South
Asian American males to endorse bulimic symptoms, albeit still
well below levels found in patients suffering from bulimia (Garner
et al., 1983).
In addition, we found similarities in the correlation pattern
involving negative affectivity, contingencies of self-worth, and
eating disturbances between South Asian American females and
males. For example, for both sexes, the associations were both
positive and highly significant among the three indices of eating
disturbance examined in the present study. In contrast, there were
also some stark differences found in the present study. Specifically, consistent with current research and theory on eating dysfunction (e.g., Downey & Chang, 2007; Stice et al., 2001; Stice et
al., 2008), we predicted that negative affectivity would be positively associated with eating disturbances in both sexes. Indeed,
for females, we found that greater negative affectivity was significantly associated with greater drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body dissatisfaction. Unexpectedly, however, this was
not the case for males. For this group, negative affectivity was
found to have no reliable association with any of the eating
disturbance outcomes examined in the present study. Accordingly,
it would be useful in future research to try and better understand
whether and how negative affectivity is involved in other important psychological outcomes and processes (e.g., coping) in South
Asian American males.
Negative Affectivity and Contingencies of Self-Worth
as Predictors of Eating Disturbances in South Asian
Americans
To determine whether or not contingencies of self-worth would
be, beyond negative affectivity, an important predictor of eating
disturbances, we conducted a series of regression analyses for
South Asian American females and males. For females, findings
from these analyses indicated that beyond negative affectivity,
which was found to account for a small to medium amount of the
variance in each of the three eating disturbance outcomes, contingencies of self-worth accounted for a medium to large amount of
the variance in drive for thinness, bulimic symptoms, and body
dissatisfaction. Noteworthy, a sense of self-worth involving low
family support consistently emerged as the strongest, or next to
strongest, unique predictor within the self-worth predictor set,
followed by a sense of self-worth involving greater perceptions of
personal attractiveness as a unique predictor of a greater drive for
thinness and greater body dissatisfaction. Thus, these findings may
be taken to suggest that efforts to reduce eating disturbances in
females may benefit from interventions that seek to both diminish
experiences of chronic negative affect and lessen perceptions of
self-worth that are based excessively on family support and appearance. Indeed, a recent review of studies examining the effectiveness of family based interventions for managing eating dysfunctions have pointed to the promising value of treatments that
focus on psychoeducation about the sociocultural context of eating
behaviors and promoting positive family communication (Kaslow,
Broth, Smith, & Collins, 2012). Relatedly, given research linking
teasing and cultural conflict with greater eating disturbances in
South Asian American females (Iyer & Haslam, 2003; Reddy &
Crowther, 2007), it may also be useful to assess for the presence of
appearance-related teasing and family/parent conflict when working with this group.
Alternatively, for South Asian American males, findings from
our regression analyses indicated that negative affectivity did not
account for any significant amount of variance in eating disturbances. This is consistent with our earlier correlational results.
Interestingly, although contingencies of self-worth was found,
beyond negative affectivity, to account for a medium, albeit nonsignificant, amount of the variance in each of the eating distur-
EATING DISTURBANCES IN SOUTH ASIAN AMERICANS
bance outcomes, only a sense of self-worth involving low family
support was found to be a unique predictor of a drive for thinness
in this group. Although it is not clear why negative affectivity and
contingencies of self-worth did not play a significant a role in
predicting eating disturbances in males, our findings do make one
thing clear; namely, a need to consider additional explanatory
variables for understanding eating disturbances in this group (e.g.,
lack of positive affectivity, perfectionism; Downey & Chang,
2007). Moreover, given the high prevalence rate of Type 2 diabetes among males of South Asian heritage, compared with those of
European heritage (Bhopal et al., 1999), it may also be useful to
examine prediction models that look at other eating behaviors and
outcomes (e.g., dietary habits, obesity; Lawton et al., 2008).
Some Limitations of the Present Study
Beyond these considerations, it is worth mentioning some
limitations of the present study. First, the focus of our study was
on South Asian Americans. However, our sample was composed of mostly Indian Americans. Because South Asian Americans are represented by diverse subgroups (e.g., Pakistanian
Americans, Sri Lankan Americans), it would be important to
evaluate the generalizability of the present findings to more
specific South Asian American ethnic groups, including those
drawn from community samples. Second, our study focused on
sex differences in negative affectivity and contingencies of
self-worth as predictors of eating disturbances in South Asian
Americans. It would be interesting to determine whether these
variables predict clinically severe levels of disordered eating, as
well as other important outcomes (e.g., depressive symptoms,
academic achievement) in South Asian Americans and whether
sex differences emerge in the prediction models. Third, although we limited our study to South Asian Americans (i.e.,
individuals of South Asian heritage that were born and/or living
in the US), it would be interesting to determine if the present set
of results can be generalized to individuals living in South Asian
countries (cf. Reddy & Crowther, 2007). Finally, given the crosssectional nature of the present study, it would be important in
future studies to use longitudinal designs that can help clarify the
causal associations involving negative affectivity, contingencies of
self-worth, and eating disturbances in South Asian Americans.
Concluding Thoughts
In summary, we examined for sex differences in negative affectivity and contingencies of self-worth as predictors of eating
disturbances in South Asian Americans. We found that negative
affectivity was an important predictor of eating disturbances in
females, but not in males. When we looked at contingencies of
self-worth, we found that self-worth linked to (lack of) family
support was a consistent predictor of each of the three eating
disturbance outcomes examined in the present study for females,
but was only a predictor of drive for thinness in males. Thus, our
findings not only go beyond those from a few studies that have
looked at eating disturbances limited to only females, but they also
make very clear that when it comes to understanding eating disturbances in South Asian Americans, sex does matter. Accordingly, researchers will need to develop and test different models of
eating disturbances in studying females, compared with males.
7
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Received May 4, 2012
Revision received September 10, 2012
Accepted December 14, 2012 䡲