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Journal of Consumer Marketing Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and Implications for Marketing Strategy James H. Leigh Terrance G. Gabel Article information: To cite this document: James H. Leigh Terrance G. Gabel, (1992),"Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and Implications for Marketing Strategy", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 9 Iss 1 pp. 27 - 38 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000002594 Downloaded on: 06 October 2015, At: 06:50 (PT) References: this document contains references to 0 other documents. To copy this document: [email protected] The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 2242 times since 2006* Users who downloaded this article also downloaded: James H. Leigh, Terrance G. Gabel, (1992),"Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behaviour and Implications for Marketing Strategy", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 6 Iss 3 pp. 5-16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08876049210035881 Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) Subodh Bhat, Srinivas K. Reddy, (1998),"Symbolic and functional positioning of brands", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 15 Iss 1 pp. 32-43 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363769810202664 Jai-Ok Kim, Sandra Forsythe, Qingliang Gu, Sook Jae Moon, (2002),"Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and purchase behavior", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19 Iss 6 pp. 481-502 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363760210444869 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:478531 [] For Authors If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download. Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM: ITS EFFECTS ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETING STRATEGY James H. Leigh Terrance G. Gabel Many products are purchased for their symbolic significance to important reference groups. The concept of symbolic interactionism is discussed and considered within the context of consumer behavior. Marketers can enhance symbolic relevance through careful attention to the various elements of marketing strategy under their control. Suggestions and implications for target market definition and marketing mix variables are provided. It is a well-known fact that consumers may buy a given product for reasons other than the product's basic functional performance. People are often motivated to buy a good or service on the basis of what it represents to themselves, and to others with whom they associate or to some societal referent. Consumer behavior researchers have applied theories from several disciplines in the social sciences to explain this type of purchasing behavior. One such James H. Leigh is Associate Professor of Marketing at Texas A&M University. He is co-founder and co-editor of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, which is now in its thirteenth year of publication. His research interests include the examination of reference group influence on consumer behavior and the development of alternative means of assessing advertising effectiveness. Dr. Leigh's research has appeared in a number of different journals and conference proceedings. Terrance G. Gabel holds a Masters of Science Degree in Marketing from Texas A&M University and is currently Marketing and Business Development Manager for The Respond Group, Inc., a provider of global trade facilitation services headquartered in Houston, Texas. Mr. Gabel was nominated for the 1990 George Hay Brown/American Marketing Association Marketing Scholar of the Year Award, and is a member of the Beta Gamma Sigma, Phi Kappa Phi and Alpha Mu Alpha Honor Societies. Vol. 9 No. 1 Winter 1992 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING sociological theory deals with the phenomenon of symbolic interactionism. The purpose of this paper is to examine the concept of symbolic interactionism, outline its relevance for consumer behavior, and suggest strategic marketing implications. There is a definite need for marketers to consider symbolic interactionism aspects when formulating strategy. Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) The Concept of Symbolic Interactionism Modern interpretations of symbolic interactionism are derived mainly from the works of George Herbert Mead. In addition, the historical underpinnings of symbolic interactionism can be found in Charles Horton Cooley's theory of society, John Dewey's concept of habit, and W.I. Thomas' definition of the situation.5 The concept of symbolic interactionism is based on the premise that individuals interact with society at large and with reference groups to determine how behavior should be structured. Individuals are assumed to relate to objects or events based on their symbolic meaning given by society. Symbolic Interactionism in Consumer Behavior Symbolic interactionism is manifested in consumer behavior in the form of symbolic purchasing behavior. This type of purchasing occurs when consumers acquire a specific good or service for what it signifies, based on the symbols attached by society.1 Such products and brands act as social tools in that they serve to communicate symbolically between the individual and his significant referents. For example, blue jeans symbolize informality in society, yet different groups have different brands as symbols. Advertising and other marketing communications can effectively serve as vehicles for this process of symbolic meaning transfer. The effects of symbolic interactionism on consumer behavior have been addressed in the marketing literature since the mid-1950s. Of all 28 such work to date, one article presents a thorough coverage of these effects.8 A number of propositions were presented, and are summarized in Exhibit 1. The symbolic interactionism perspective holds that consumers are often strongly influenced by their interaction with society or significant reference groups. After the consumer chooses to identify with a particular group, he must determine exactly what certain products mean to group members. If the consumer finds that symbolism is important, he will tend to behave in the manner perceived as being favorable in the eyes of the relevant group referents. In this process of symbolic meaning transfer, the group is assumed to publicly convey the symbols attached to products and then demonstrate the relative importance of these symbols to present and prospective group members. The group then observes the behavior of these real or aspirational group members and applies rewards or sanctions based on the level of adoption of the product symbolism. As an example of this process, consider the person who desires to be admitted to a particular country club. This aspiring member may notice that most current members drive domestic luxury automobiles. Because the aspiring member perceives the purchase of an American luxury auto as being vital for group membership, he may purchase one so that important group referents can see that he shares their symbolic values and will accept him as a group member. Marketing Strategy Implications It is important that a company's product be positioned in the marketplace as offering unique and meaningful benefits. The symbolic meaning associated with the product is an important input to product image. When social groups attach symbolic meaning to a product, companies need to understand its nature so that they can reinforce or alter it to their advantage. Companies can take a more proactive stance by attempting to develop favorable SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Exhibit 1 General Propositions of Product Symbolism Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) 1) The symbolic meaning of products is ultimately defined by society. Although not explicitly stated, it is important to note that a shared symbolic meaning by society at large is not necessary for symbolic definition to occur. Shared symbolic meaning within a rel-. evant reference group is sufficient for meaningful symbolic definition among group members. For example, a group of students at a given high school might attach symbolic meaning to a particular article of clothing, such as a certain brand or style of blue jeans or high-top sneakers. 2] Products can be viewed as causes of behavior, in addition to their role as satisfiers of, or responses to a need. Specifically, the symbols attached to a product by a certain relevant referent may cause a consumer to act. Symbolic meaning can thus serve to either increase or decrease the likelihood of purchase, depending on whether the consumer identifies with or holds negative attitudes toward the reference group, respectively. 3) Product symbolism affects the formation of an individual's self concept. The way a consumer sees others evaluating him is based, in part, on the products possessed and consumed. For example, an overweight, sedentary individual might purchase a membership at a health club and a collection of designer workout gear and then start to perceive himself as active and athletic. symbolic images for their goods and services. The primary means by which a company can influence the symbolic image its product acquires is through a carefully planned and implemented marketing program. Symbolic interactionism has implications both for a company's market segmentation practices and for the formulation of strategy concerning all four variables of the marketing mix. 4) The more complete and consistent the set of product symbols possessed by a consumer, the higher the probability of successful role performance. Consumers may then tend to buy groups of products which are consistent with the image required by the roles performed. For example, a business person, in an attempt to be accepted by his peers, may purchase not only a new suit, but also a new briefcase, and a pair of shoes consistent with the image he wishes to project. 5) Symbolic purchasing behavior is more likely to be exhibited when the consumer lacks knowledge about how to perform a certain required role. When such knowledge is lacking, a consumer will use the symbols embedded in products to define one's role. Periods of consumer role transition exemplify these knowledge-deficient situations. For example, a new college student may purchase certain items and brands of clothing quite different from ones purchased in the past merely because the student notices these items and brands being worn by other students or groups of students in order to "fit in" in the new environment. 6) Although products are purchased because of the symbols attached to them at a societal or group level, this symbolism may be consumed on an individual, private basis. For example, a consumer may purchase a certain style of television because of its societally-defined symbolic value, but will consume it in the private surroundings of one's home. Segmentation Variables For purposes of market segmentation, it is important that those consumers and their associated reference groups most likely to employ symbolic purchasing behavior be identified so that they can be most efficiently and effectively reached through targeted marketing efforts which carry the desired symbolic product meaning. 29 Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING Consumer Characteristics Group Characteristics The following consumer characteristics appear to be susceptible to the adoption of symbolic purchasing behavior: (1) Consumers in role transition, because of a lack of role knowledge or a lack of confidence. The consumer here may reason that they are supposed to acquire and then consume certain products in the new situation because important referents are assumed to have behaved in a similar fashion in the past. For example, the recent college graduate who assumes an entry-level management position, not knowing how to act in this new role, may rely on cues from the new surroundings and purchase certain brands, styles, and colors of suits, shirts, ties and shoes in order to be accepted by relevant referents. (2) Consumers who place high levels of importance on social group membership and advancement. As the level of importance increases, the consumer will be more likely to allow the stated or perceived symbolic definitions held by relevant referents to influence behavior. They see the sharing of a common symbolic meaning as one basis on which they will be judged by others and will strive to demonstrate such agreement to those they seek to impress by visibly consuming the appropriate symbol. Consumers who possess these characteristics are exemplified in the updated Values and Lifestyles (VALS2) typology by the Striver, Achiever and Actualizer categories. 7 (3) Consumers aspiring to gain membership in a particular social group. As with the previous consumer characteristic, the consumer assumes that the possession of certain product symbols is a prerequisite for their successful role performance, here defined as that of acceptance by the desired social group. These aspirationally-driven consumers are exemplified by the Strivers lifestyle category in the VALS2 paradigm.7 Certain group characteristics will also influence the extent of symbolic p u r c h a s i n g behavior exhibited. When the consumer feels a strong sense of belonging to the reference group, purchasing based on symbolic meaning is more likely. The presence of any of the following group characteristics is likely to contribute to a stronger sense of belonging for the consumer: exclusive groups, distinctive groups, homogeneous groups, frequentlyinteracting groups, and formal groups. The first three characteristics are the most relevant for segmentation purposes because such characteristics are likely to result in a strong sense of belonging for the group member and thus likely to influence purchasing behavior. These three group characteristics are manifested in groups defined by e d u c a t i o n , income, race, occupation and age. For example, within the same geographic area, highlyeducated, young, white university professors and poorly-educated, young, white factory workers could both form highly-exclusive, distinctive, and homogeneous groups whose members rely heavily on the purchasing habits and symbolic product meanings held by other group members when they behave in the marketplace. While the purchasing habits of members of these groups may appear to be quite dissimilar, they are alike in that they are highly affected by symbolic interactionism. Consumers characterized by one or more of these attributes are likely to purchase and consume products based on symbolic meaning. The use of a lifestyle-based approach such as the VALS2 typology mentioned above is one method of identifying these consumers. 30 The latter two characteristics also influence the sense of belonging for the group member. The more frequently a group interacts, the more opportunities exist for members to observe and evaluate each other's purchasing behavior. The family or a student's classmates exemplify this type of group. The more formal a group is, the stronger will be the norms pressuring the individual to conform. For example, highly-formal groups, such as managerial employees within an organization, exhibit strong norms concerning modes of attire which are often strictly adhered to and thus influence purchasing behavior. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM General Exemplary Segments Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) Members of certain specific consumer segments, defined on the basis of selected demographic and psychographic variables, seem to exhibit the above-outlined consumer and group characteristics, and therefore should be likely to engage in symbolic purchasing behavior: (1) Children, teenagers and young adults, because of the importance of social group membership, periods of role transition (entering high school, college or the working world), and increased levels of disposable income and independence. The influence of aspirational reference groups will likely be especially strong, as the consumer becomes aware of new social groups to which he may desire to have affiliation. This propensity to be influenced by aspirational reference groups typifies the VALS2 lifestyle category of Experiencers. (2) Upwardly mobile individuals, especially the "nouveau-riche", because of their ability and desire to belong to exclusive social organizations, their practice of conspicuous consumption, and their ability and propensity to purchase high-priced, luxury items. The selfimage ideal of these "Upper Americans" is "spending with good taste" (and being so judged). 2 These consumers exemplify the Actualizer and Achiever lifestyle categories in the VALS2 model. Upwardly mobile individuals in their prime child-rearing years, regardless of their income or social status, are very prone to symbolic purchasing behavior because of the additional role transition possibilities and parental responsibilities associated with their child's activities outside the home. It should be noted that within these market segments, propensity to exhibit symbolic purchasing behavior will vary. The probability of such behavior will be highest among those consumers relatively new to the segment and those with the highest levels of the following personality characteristics: insecurity and status-directedness. Again, the VALS2 typology of lifestyle categories serves as one approach for identifying consumers with such characteristics. It identifies the Striver category as one in which the members exhibit a relatively high level of insecurity by stating that what drives them is a desire to emulate the people they wish they were.7 While the three VALS2 categories dealt with here—Strivers, Achievers and Actualizers—all display a tendency to structure their behavior based on observations of those around them, the Achiever group is the most status-oriented - they favor goods and services that allow them to show off their success to their peers.7 Formulation of additional processes of identifying these status-oriented individuals should be a topic for future research. Further adding to the difficulty involved in identifying both who will exhibit symbolic purchasing behavior and when they will exhibit it, is the fact that each purchasing situation carries with it unique conditions and considerations which may influence the importance of product symbolism. In addition to the examples and guidelines presented here, the marketer must ask himself relevant situation-specific questions concerning market segmentation and ones concerning each variable of the marketing mix. A sampling of these types of questions is presented in Exhibit 2. Marketing Mix Implications Society or relevant reference groups ultimately define the symbolic meaning of the product, but marketers can help shape and reinforce these definitions through careful manipulation of marketing mix variables. 3 It should be the goal of this process to send out evidence fostering the creation of a consistent and favorable symbolic image of the product. Successful management of product symbolism requires that strategies for all four mix variables (product, promotion, price, distribution) be planned with the goal of consistency in mind. If one variable is not consistent with the others, the symbolic image could be obscured and adversely altered. Although each mix variable will be addressed separately, the need for coordination in actual strategy formulation cannot be overemphasized. 31 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING Exhibit 2 Some Questions to Ask Regarding Symbolism's Relevance in Marketing Strategy Segmentation Variables: Are current purchasers of the product category likely to buy for symbolic aspects? Current customers of brand? If yes, what reference groups are relevant? Are there other segments that might find symbolic attributes important? If yes, are there possible negative effects to the current customer base of focusing on the additional target(s)? Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) Marketing Mix: Product: Does the product category currently have symbolic appeal? The brand? Are other firms benefitting from symbolic association? What is the relative emphasis of tangible and symbolic attributes to a consumer's choice? What brand features, tangible and intangible, can be used to develop a symbolic appeal? Are there any accessory products that might be developed to produce a symbolic group? Promotion: What feature-symbol benefit linkages should be stressed to enhance symbolic imagery? What slice-of-life situation can be used to communicate symbolic relevance? Is there a suitable celebrity spokesperson for symbolic enhancement? Pricing: What is the price of the brand relative to the competition? Higher, same, lower? Is the relative price congruent with the desired symbolic appeal? Distribution: Is the current mix of retail outlets congruent with the desired symbolism? What outlets should be dropped or added? 32 Product An initial element in formulating product strategy based on symbolic aspects entails consideration of the types of products likely to be purchased for symbolic reasons. Because symbolic purchasing behavior is likely to involve complex decision making, it can be reasoned that the following types of products would likely be purchased partly for their symbolic value: (1) High priced products (e.g., boats, designer fashions, luxury automobiles). (2) Products associated with performance risks (e.g., sporting equipment, nutritional supplements, sports cars). (3) Complex products (e.g., home entertainment systems, boat motors, portable CD players). (4) Specialty goods (e.g., gourmet foods, fine jewelry, formal wear). (5) Products associated w i t h one's ego (e.g., cologne, alcoholic beverages, clothing).1 The purchase of a high-performance sports car, such as a Porsche or Ferrari, serves as an example of all of the above product-related characteristics affecting purchasing behavior. However, it is not necessary for a product to exhibit all of these attributes to be purchased for its symbolic value; one or two of these traits is often sufficient. For example, Air Jordan basketball shoes, while being associated with performance risks and, in many cases, associated with one's ego, are not high-priced in absolute terms, are certainly not complex, and are not a specialty good because many substitutes exist and they are available in a wide range of store types and locations. In addition to these five product characteristics, the special social nature of symbolic consumption merits the inclusion of other product types: products closely tied to social roles, and publicly-consumed products, especially ones which are expressive in nature. The first type of product would be especially likely to be purchased for symbolic reasons if the consumer has little or no experience with the product category in question or with the demands of the role. As for publicly-consumed and expressive products, the ease with which the product can be observed by others would tend to increase a consumer's sensitivity to SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) symbolic significance. For example, consider the commonality of clothing worn within such groups as businessmen—suits and ties—and fishermen—baseball caps and jeans. The fact that this clothing is worn during performance of a social role and is often done so in open view of relevant referents attaches symbolism to these clothing products so strongly that they acquire "uniform" status to the consumer. When symbolic purchasing behavior takes place because of role transition, opportunities exist for development of new products and services. When consumers are confronted by these uncomfortable situations, they look to the symbolic definitions of products to help them act in the proper manner. Marketers should consider developing products that can be added to the existing set of props deemed necessary for successful role performance. This is a viable strategic consideration because symbolic purchasers often buy products in symbolic groups based on past or accompanying purchases. For example, to appeal to the consumer segment that perceives a Rolex watch, a Brooks Brothers suit and Johnson Murphy shoes as a symbolic whole, a firm may want to introduce other apparel products, such as dress shirts or outerwear that complement the existing products in the symbolic group. LeviStrauss has done something similar to this with the introduction of shirts, shoes and socks to complement their line of blue jeans. This principle was also employed by Harley Davidson several years ago when they introduced their own brand of beer, Heavy Beer, and more recently when they introduced their own line of clothing, MotorClothes, all in an attempt to complete the symbolic whole of products perceived as necessary by the Harley Davidson motorcycle enthusiast or aspirant. Another product strategy objective should be to develop and design products offering visible physical attributes that can serve to provide the appropriate and desired symbolism. For example, "power" watches and pens (i.e., products that indicate the owner possesses power over others), have a notable absence of certain mechanical features in their design. The simplistic nature of a watch with no numerals or markings symbolizes good taste and self confidence among certain groups of consumers. Actual and aspirational members of these groups are inclined to purchase the symbols embedded in this product design to be accepted. As always, when dealing with the product variable of the marketing mix, it should be remembered that adequate product performance is expected by the consumer. Even if all of the other marketing variables have done their job of symbolic definition transfer, a faulty or inferior product can mean disaster. For example, if several members of a group of women at a health club purchase Nike CrossTrainers for aerobics class based on shared symbolic value, and, after a relatively short period of use, notice the shoes showing signs of deterioration, the whole group may reevaluate the appropriateness of the product. At the very least, those who are dissatisfied with, and embarrassed by inadequate product performance in this social setting, will not repurchase the product. A poorly designed and manufactured product will not enjoy long-run survival on symbolic value alone. The nature of product symbolism is also often quite volatile and potentially disastrous if not properly managed. At one time, Izod shirts with the highly visible alligator emblem enjoyed a very favorable image among certain market segments. As the symbolism diffused through other—specifically younger—market segments, the symbolism attached to the product changed to a point where what the emblem symbolized—prestige—was rebelled against, and the shirts were avoided by those who once held them in high esteem. The everchanging nature of product symbolism and the very real possibility that it may become detrimental to overall product or company performance necessitates that marketers continually monitor the symbolic image diffusion process. One company that has exhibited an ability to manage this process well despite being in a very dynamic and competitive environment is Nike. They have been able to continually 33 Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING introduce products and market them successfully based on an awareness of changing product symbolism. For example, as symbolism towards their athletic footwear has evolved, they have been successful marketing them as "high-tech" products as well as "fashion" accessories. Nike realizes that although their products are not strictly "fad" products, they will nevertheless routinely become obsolete because of changing consumer perceptions and have designed their system of product development with this in mind. Frank Sinatra, Eric Clapton, Phil Collins, and Steve Winwood. It is always made clear, especially in the Sinatra commercial, that the purpose of the campaign is to portray Michelob as a status symbol and as a beer for trendy, young, attractive socialites. In the Sinatra commercial, people of this type are milling around an elegant nightclub drinking Michelob, where, it was implied, that Sinatra was performing. The message is that if you want to be accepted by people similar to those in the commercial, drink Michelob beer and be seen doing so. Implied in this discussion of product development from the symbolic interactionist perspective is the fact that the overriding concern of development activities should be to offer a product that presents a consistent and complete symbolic image. The product's physical features, brand name, brand insignias, and level of product quality should all serve to further this symbolic picture to present to potential consumers. Advertising following the steps outlined in the above process is quite common. It is especially prevalent in specialty print media because of the exclusivity and homogeneity of the groups who subscribe to and read them. Regardless of the specific subject matter of these narrowly-targeted media, advertisers are apparently taking advantage of the fact that readers are prone to high levels of symbolic purchasing behavior. Promotion Both actual and symbolic features of the product should be used collectively to define overall product benefits, thereby serving to add substance to the abstract symbolism proposed and, at the same time, providing associative meaning to actual physical product features. As an example of this, a recent Toyota Camry print ad features both a picture of a successfullooking businessman, a picture of the car, and a written description of several performance features of the car. The copy integrates the performance features with the symbolic benefits by comparing situations encountered on the road with situations encountered in the corporate boardroom and by stressing the word power and its connotations in both settings. Promotion, and advertising in particular, should play a major role in the transferal of symbolic meaning by associating the actual consumer good or service with the symbolic representation of the product. The task of advertising and other promotional efforts in the process of symbolic meaning transfer is fourfold. First, promotion should project to the audience the actual symbols that are to be associated with the product. Second, the relevant referents upholding the product symbolism should be conveyed. Third, promotional efforts should communicate which particular societal segments are to find this symbolic transferal pertinent to their needs. Fourth, the benefits received by accepting the proposed symbolism should be delineated. The "The Night Belongs to Michelob" campaign for Michelob beer serves as an example of this process in action. This campaign, most notably the television portion, features a variety of separate commercials all based on the main theme and featuring nightclub atmospheres with well-known musical stars such as 34 Normally the main benefit conveyed by promotional efforts should be the increased likelihood of social acceptance through the use of the product in the prescribed manner. Depiction of such a scenario is best done using a slice-of-life format. Such a format also serves to communicate to the audience that it is normal and legitimate to be concerned about being socially accepted. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) Promotions designed to effect symbolic meaning transfer should tend to be mildly ambiguous in their content presentation. Specifically, actual promotional messages should be explicit enough to convey clearly the proposed symbolism to the target audience, but not be so explicit that the message is ignored because of its direct, authoritative nature. Commanding someone to accept your proposed abstract symbolism will likely not be effective. A better strategy would be to suggest these abstract product-symbol associations and to let the viewer make the ultimate decision as to whether or not to accept the proposed symbolism as fact. For instance, while perfume and cologne advertisements don't actually say that members of the opposite sex will be more attracted to you, their symbolic content is usually strong enough to make the necessary associations. A celebrity endorsement in an advertisement often representsan attempt to stress the symbolic features and benefits of the product. 4 Possession of the endorsed product signifies something in common with the celebrity. As a result, the consumer may purchase the product because he personally thinks that having the same product as the celebrity will improve role performance. Reflexive evaluation, which is the tendency of a person to speculate as to the nature of others' thoughts about himself, may also factor into the purchase decision as the consumer may believe that product possession will stimulate relevant referents to associate the user with the celebrity endorser in some manner. Large sums of money are routinely spent by advertisers to utilize the services of influential celebrities, particularly sports figures. Basketball superstar Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls makes an estimated $5 million annually on endorsements for such companies as Nike, Chevrolet and McDonalds. 6 Although purchase of any of the products Jordan endorses for these companies may result from the consumer wishing to have something in common with him, Jordan's endorsements for Nike, particularly those for the Air Jordan line, are clearly the most heavi- ly symbolism-oriented. This is because the product being endorsed is one which Jordan uses in his role as a professional basketball player, and he is recognized as an expert performer of this role. Relative to the endorsements Jordan does for the other two companies, being associated with Nike basketball shoes allows the consumer to be more able to perceive that purchase of the product will facilitate improved role performance. Another important implication for promotional strategy, and for advertising in particular, is that because of the symbolism inherent in many products, additional testing of promotional messages is necessary. In addition to standard copytesting measures, advertising messages should also be tested to monitor the appropriateness of the symbols that are extracted by the consumer. It is important to ensure that consumers understand the symbolic appeal, identify with the associated referent, and relate to the symbolism in a positive manner. Development of suitable measures is an important avenue for research efforts. Pricing Although promotional tactics and product considerations will often serve as the primary vehicles for the transfer of symbolic meaning, pricing strategy plays a major supportive role. The main goal of pricing should be to maintain and reinforce promotional efforts of symbolic meaning transfer. The nature of the symbolic image of the product should serve to warrant a relatively high price. A high relative price should connote a higher level of quality and enhanced perceived role performance capabilities to consumers engaged in symbolic purchasing behavior, especially in situations where the consumer lacks role knowledge and product experience. In turn, this price-quality relationship reinforces the image of a symbolicallydefined product by giving it prestige status in the eyes of the consumer, who is, after all, supposedly looking for something to achieve a sense of belonging through product purchase and consumption. 35 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING In addition to the fact that a relatively high product price connotes high product quality and enhanced role performance capabilities to the symbolic purchaser, high prices may also be set simply because consumers prone to this type of shopping behavior would be reasoned to be relatively price-insensitive. In symbolic purchasing, price plays a minor role in the decision process. 1 Paying the high price and possessing the symbols may well in fact be necessary antecedents to reaching the goal of social acceptance. Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) Distribution Distribution, like pricing, can serve to reinforce the symbolic image put forth by the promotional campaign. Through implementation of a selective, or even an exclusive distribution strategy, the high-quality unique image of a symbolically-defined good can be further enhanced. Selective distribution requires the careful examination and choice of the number and type of outlets through which the product will be offered. This distribution option would be most effective for symbolicallydefined goods which are not expensive in absolute terms, but are still at the upper end of the price range in their product category, such as trendy or stylish clothing or respected brand-name jewelry. Because such types of products may be purchased relatively frequently, selective distribution offers the advantage of providing enough outlets so that the product will always be readily available to the consumer when needed. An exclusive distribution strategy may be warranted to reinforce the symbolic nature of such high-priced specialty goods as exotic foreign sports cars or designer label formal wear. In these cases, the exclusivity connoted by the product only being obtainable at one location within the geographical area adds to the symbolic mystique of these prestige products, provided that the image of the exclusive distributor is complementary. For example, the fact that Rolls Royce dealerships are located only in single locations in selected major 36 metropolitan areas adds to the overall symbolic image of the product. It is important to note that the use of a selective or exclusive distribution strategy should not necessarily be limited to highpriced specialty goods. The perceived or real degree of exclusivity offered by these two strategies can also be used to manage the symbolism of other, less-unique products. A competitive advantage could be established by taking a product in a more or less commodity type of product category with few real product differences and symbolically differentiating it based on its u n i q u e method of distribution and availability which, in turn, would symbolize higher relative quality. This type of strategy has been implemented by several marketers of pet food, such as Science Diet whose product is available only through veterinary offices and kennels. This selective distribution strategy is reinforced by promotional efforts that stress the product's superior nutritional value, in addition to its nontraditional place of availability to differentiate it from ordinary pet food. Important to all of these methods of symbolic meaning enhancement through distribution strategy is the symbol retail image fit. Specifically, the image of the chosen retail outlet must complement the symbolic image of the product. Marketers should be aware that other products that the retailer carries will often affect the image of their product. As an example of this awareness, colognes and perfumes such as Aramis, Yves Saint Laurent and Elizabeth Taylor's Passion are available only in fine department and clothing stores and not available at mass merchandise chain stores where other products with dissimilar images are sold. The marketers of these prestige products are concerned that by being available at a location that has a less than optimal image may damage or weaken the symbolic image enjoyed by their products and make them seem less appropriate to the target consumer. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Summary and Conclusions Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) The fact that people interact with other societal members and groups and behave towards objects based on these interactions have relev a n c e for all facets of m a r k e t i n g strategy. Careful attention to symbolic detail can facilitate a n d e n h a n c e the effectiveness of one's marketing effort. The importance of symbolic purchasing is clearly evident when one considers t h a t t h e t h r e e s t a t u s - o r i e n t e d VALS2 lifestyle categories mentioned in this paper— Strivers, Achievers, and Actualizers—account for an estimated thirty to forty percent of the A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n . 7 It is i m p o r t a n t to remember that symbolic purchasing occurs freq u e n t l y in all w a l k s of life, r e g a r d l e s s of income or social status. It must be noted that symbolic interactionism affects the purchase of both goods and service product offerings. It could even be argued that because services are harder to differentiate than are goods because of their inherent intangibility, symbolic meanings play a more important role in the purchase of services as opposed to the purchase of physical goods. These symbolic meanings could well h e l p to add perceived tangibility and substance to the service offering, thus serving to differentiate it from the competition. For example, "gold" credit cards hold distinctly different symbolic meanings in our society, as o p p o s e d to ordinary credit cards. There is a need to consider and cultivate the symbolic meanings associated w i t h b o t h n e w a n d existing services. More detailed examination of the effects of symbolic interactionism on the purchase of service produ c t s is n e e d e d a n d s h o u l d be t h e t o p i c of future research. The following eight points summarize the major ideas offered in this article: 1. Product symbolism affects the conception an individual has of himself, his role performance, and is particularly likely to be important when a consumer lacks role knowledge. 2. As particular reference groups tend to have identifiable characteristics and unique forms of symbolic purchasing behavior, market segmentation in terms of such group characteristics as degree of exclusivity and formality is a useful means of pinpointing appropriate segments. In addition, the use of consumer chara c t e r i s t i c s t h a t r e l a t e to g r e a t e r s y m b o l i c purchasing tendencies, such as one's placing importance on social advancement or being in a period of role transition, should enhance the value of segmentation and targeting. Children, teenagers, young adults and upwardly mobile individuals typify general segments that possess these characteristics. 3. A company can enhance symbolic purchasing behavior of its product through careful attention to providing a favorable symbolic image using all elements of the marketing mix in a consistent, congruent fashion. 4. Regarding product strategy, it is important to keep in mind that certain types of produ c t s are m o r e l i k e l y to b e p u r c h a s e d for symbolic value—expensive, complex specialty goods that possess a degree of social or perform a n c e risk. P u b l i c l y - c o n s u m e d , expressive products and ones tied to social roles also tend to be p u r c h a s e d for symbolic reasons. New product development efforts can be directed to offering groups of products that provide a symbolic whole. Attention should be directed to the visible product attributes that provide the desired symbolism and, above all, to ensuring product quality. 5. Promotions designed to effect symbolic meaning transferal should project the actual symbols that are to be associated w i t h the product, the relevant referents upholding the symbolism, the target segments to which the message is directed and the benefits of accepting the proposed symbolism. Both actual and symbolic features of the p r o d u c t should be used collectively to define the product benefits, and the appeal should be mildly ambiguo u s to m i n i m i z e n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n s of t h e audience. A celebrity endorser can be an effective means of communicating the desired symb o l i s m , p r o v i d e d t h e e n d o r s e r is c l o s e l y associated with the roles in which the product would be used. 37 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING 6. Products purchased for symbolic value can command a high relative price due to price insensitivity. It also provides a prestige status for the product. 7. Distribution strategy should ensure that the outlets carrying the product have an image t h a t c o m p l e m e n t s t h a t of t h e p r o d u c t . Restricted availability may serve to enhance the symbolic value of the product. 8. Symbolic interactionism equally effects the purchase of consumer services and physical goods. Marketers must not only stay informed on what certain products or brands mean to individuals or social groups, but must also realize that they can help create the symbolic image their product will have in the marketplace. The goal for marketers should be to manage their product's image through a clear and consistent marketing program targeted to those consumers who find the symbolism most relevant. End Notes 1. Assael, Henry, Consumer Publishing, 1987. Behavior and Marketing Action, 3rd ed. Boston: PWS-Kent Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT) 2. Coleman, Richard P., "The Continuing Significance of Social Class to Marketing," Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December 1983), pp. 265-280. 3. Hirschman, Elizabeth C., "Comprehending Symbolic Consumption: Three Theoretical Issues," in Proceedings of the Conference on Consumer Esthetics and Symbolic Consumption, 1980, pp. 4-6. 4. McCracken, Grant, "Who is the Celebrity Endorser? Cultural Foundations of the Endorsement Process," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (December 1989), pp. 310-321. 5. Meltzer, Bernard N., John W. Petras, and Larry T. Reynolds, Symbolic Interactionism: Varieties and Criticism. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1975. Genesis, 6. Ransom, Lou, "Michael Jordan Leaps to Success," Jet, 76 (June 12, 1989), p p . 53-54. 7. Riche, Martha Farnsworth, "Psychographics for the 1990s," American 1989), pp.24-26, 30-31, 53-54. Demographics, 11 (July 8. 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