Download Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and

Journal of Consumer Marketing
Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and Implications for Marketing Strategy
James H. Leigh Terrance G. Gabel
Article information:
To cite this document:
James H. Leigh Terrance G. Gabel, (1992),"Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and Implications for
Marketing Strategy", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 9 Iss 1 pp. 27 - 38
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000002594
Downloaded on: 06 October 2015, At: 06:50 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 2242 times since 2006*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
James H. Leigh, Terrance G. Gabel, (1992),"Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Consumer Behaviour and Implications for
Marketing Strategy", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 6 Iss 3 pp. 5-16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08876049210035881
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
Subodh Bhat, Srinivas K. Reddy, (1998),"Symbolic and functional positioning of brands", Journal of Consumer Marketing,
Vol. 15 Iss 1 pp. 32-43 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363769810202664
Jai-Ok Kim, Sandra Forsythe, Qingliang Gu, Sook Jae Moon, (2002),"Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and purchase
behavior", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19 Iss 6 pp. 481-502 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363760210444869
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:478531 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit
www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM:
ITS EFFECTS ON CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR MARKETING STRATEGY
James H. Leigh
Terrance G. Gabel
Many products are purchased for their symbolic significance to important
reference
groups. The concept of symbolic interactionism is discussed and considered within the
context of consumer behavior. Marketers can
enhance symbolic relevance through careful
attention to the various elements of marketing
strategy under their control. Suggestions and
implications for target market definition and
marketing mix variables are provided.
It is a well-known fact that consumers may
buy a given product for reasons other than the
product's basic functional performance. People
are often motivated to buy a good or service on
the basis of what it represents to themselves,
and to others with whom they associate or to
some societal referent. Consumer behavior
researchers have applied theories from several
disciplines in the social sciences to explain
this type of purchasing behavior. One such
James H. Leigh is Associate Professor of Marketing at Texas A&M University. He is co-founder and co-editor of
Current Issues and Research in Advertising, which is now in its thirteenth year of publication. His research interests
include the examination of reference group influence on consumer behavior and the development of alternative means of
assessing advertising effectiveness. Dr. Leigh's research has appeared in a number of different journals and conference
proceedings.
Terrance G. Gabel holds a Masters of Science Degree in Marketing from Texas A&M University and is currently
Marketing and Business Development Manager for The Respond Group, Inc., a provider of global trade facilitation services headquartered in Houston, Texas. Mr. Gabel was nominated for the 1990 George Hay Brown/American Marketing
Association Marketing Scholar of the Year Award, and is a member of the Beta Gamma Sigma, Phi Kappa Phi and Alpha
Mu Alpha Honor Societies.
Vol. 9 No. 1 Winter 1992
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
sociological theory deals with the phenomenon of symbolic interactionism.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the
concept of symbolic interactionism, outline its
relevance for consumer behavior, and suggest
strategic marketing implications. There is a definite need for marketers to consider symbolic
interactionism aspects when formulating strategy.
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
The Concept of Symbolic
Interactionism
Modern interpretations of symbolic interactionism are derived mainly from the works of
George Herbert Mead. In addition, the historical underpinnings of symbolic interactionism
can be found in Charles Horton Cooley's theory
of society, John Dewey's concept of habit, and
W.I. Thomas' definition of the situation.5
The concept of symbolic interactionism is
based on the premise that individuals interact
with society at large and with reference groups
to determine how behavior should be structured. Individuals are assumed to relate to
objects or events based on their symbolic
meaning given by society.
Symbolic Interactionism in
Consumer Behavior
Symbolic interactionism is manifested in
consumer behavior in the form of symbolic
purchasing behavior. This type of purchasing
occurs when consumers acquire a specific
good or service for what it signifies, based on
the symbols attached by society.1 Such products and brands act as social tools in that they
serve to communicate symbolically between
the individual and his significant referents. For
example, blue jeans symbolize informality in
society, yet different groups have different
brands as symbols. Advertising and other marketing communications can effectively serve as
vehicles for this process of symbolic meaning
transfer.
The effects of symbolic interactionism on
consumer behavior have been addressed in the
marketing literature since the mid-1950s. Of all
28
such work to date, one article presents a thorough coverage of these effects.8 A number of
propositions were presented, and are summarized in Exhibit 1.
The symbolic interactionism perspective
holds that consumers are often strongly influenced by their interaction with society or significant reference groups. After the consumer
chooses to identify with a particular group, he
must determine exactly what certain products
mean to group members. If the consumer finds
that symbolism is important, he will tend to
behave in the manner perceived as being favorable in the eyes of the relevant group referents.
In this process of symbolic meaning transfer,
the group is assumed to publicly convey the
symbols attached to products and then demonstrate the relative importance of these symbols
to present and prospective group members.
The group then observes the behavior of these
real or aspirational group members and applies
rewards or sanctions based on the level of
adoption of the product symbolism.
As an example of this process, consider the
person who desires to be admitted to a particular country club. This aspiring member may
notice that most current members drive domestic luxury automobiles. Because the aspiring
member perceives the purchase of an
American luxury auto as being vital for group
membership, he may purchase one so that
important group referents can see that he
shares their symbolic values and will accept
him as a group member.
Marketing Strategy
Implications
It is important that a company's product be
positioned in the marketplace as offering
unique and meaningful benefits. The symbolic
meaning associated with the product is an
important input to product image. When social
groups attach symbolic meaning to a product,
companies need to understand its nature so
that they can reinforce or alter it to their
advantage. Companies can take a more proactive stance by attempting to develop favorable
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Exhibit 1
General Propositions of Product Symbolism
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
1) The symbolic meaning of products is
ultimately defined by society. Although not
explicitly stated, it is important to note that a
shared symbolic meaning by society at large
is not necessary for symbolic definition to
occur. Shared symbolic meaning within a rel-.
evant reference group is sufficient for meaningful symbolic definition among group
members. For example, a group of students at
a given high school might attach symbolic
meaning to a particular article of clothing,
such as a certain brand or style of blue jeans
or high-top sneakers.
2] Products can be viewed as causes of
behavior, in addition to their role as satisfiers of, or responses to a need. Specifically,
the symbols attached to a product by a certain relevant referent may cause a consumer
to act. Symbolic meaning can thus serve to
either increase or decrease the likelihood of
purchase, depending on whether the
consumer identifies with or holds negative
attitudes toward the reference group,
respectively.
3) Product symbolism affects the formation of an individual's self concept. The way
a consumer sees others evaluating him is
based, in part, on the products possessed and
consumed. For example, an overweight,
sedentary individual might purchase a membership at a health club and a collection of
designer workout gear and then start to perceive himself as active and athletic.
symbolic images for their goods and services.
The primary means by which a company can
influence the symbolic image its product
acquires is through a carefully planned and
implemented marketing program. Symbolic
interactionism has implications both for a
company's market segmentation practices and
for the formulation of strategy concerning all
four variables of the marketing mix.
4) The more complete and consistent the
set of product symbols possessed by a consumer, the higher the probability of successful role performance. Consumers may then
tend to buy groups of products which are
consistent with the image required by the
roles performed. For example, a business person, in an attempt to be accepted by his
peers, may purchase not only a new suit, but
also a new briefcase, and a pair of shoes consistent with the image he wishes to project.
5) Symbolic purchasing behavior is more
likely to be exhibited when the consumer
lacks knowledge about how to perform a certain required role. When such knowledge is
lacking, a consumer will use the symbols
embedded in products to define one's role.
Periods of consumer role transition exemplify
these knowledge-deficient situations. For
example, a new college student may purchase
certain items and brands of clothing quite different from ones purchased in the past merely
because the student notices these items and
brands being worn by other students or
groups of students in order to "fit in" in the
new environment.
6) Although products are purchased
because of the symbols attached to them at a
societal or group level, this symbolism may
be consumed on an individual, private basis.
For example, a consumer may purchase a certain style of television because of its societally-defined symbolic value, but will consume
it in the private surroundings of one's home.
Segmentation Variables
For purposes of market segmentation, it is
important that those consumers and their associated reference groups most likely to employ
symbolic purchasing behavior be identified so
that they can be most efficiently and effectively reached through targeted marketing efforts
which carry the desired symbolic product
meaning.
29
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
Consumer Characteristics
Group Characteristics
The following consumer characteristics
appear to be susceptible to the adoption of
symbolic purchasing behavior: (1) Consumers
in role transition, because of a lack of role
knowledge or a lack of confidence. The consumer here may reason that they are supposed
to acquire and then consume certain products
in the new situation because important referents are assumed to have behaved in a similar
fashion in the past. For example, the recent
college graduate who assumes an entry-level
management position, not knowing how to act
in this new role, may rely on cues from the
new surroundings and purchase certain
brands, styles, and colors of suits, shirts, ties
and shoes in order to be accepted by relevant
referents. (2) Consumers who place high levels
of importance on social group membership
and advancement. As the level of importance
increases, the consumer will be more likely to
allow the stated or perceived symbolic definitions held by relevant referents to influence
behavior. They see the sharing of a common
symbolic meaning as one basis on which they
will be judged by others and will strive to
demonstrate such agreement to those they seek
to impress by visibly consuming the appropriate symbol. Consumers who possess these
characteristics are exemplified in the updated
Values and Lifestyles (VALS2) typology by the
Striver, Achiever and Actualizer categories. 7
(3) Consumers aspiring to gain membership in
a particular social group. As with the previous
consumer characteristic, the consumer
assumes that the possession of certain product
symbols is a prerequisite for their successful
role performance, here defined as that of
acceptance by the desired social group. These
aspirationally-driven consumers are exemplified by the Strivers lifestyle category in the
VALS2 paradigm.7
Certain group characteristics will also influence the extent of symbolic p u r c h a s i n g
behavior exhibited. When the consumer feels
a strong sense of belonging to the reference
group, purchasing based on symbolic meaning is more likely. The presence of any of the
following group characteristics is likely to
contribute to a stronger sense of belonging for
the consumer: exclusive groups, distinctive
groups, homogeneous groups, frequentlyinteracting groups, and formal groups. The
first three characteristics are the most relevant for segmentation purposes because such
characteristics are likely to result in a strong
sense of belonging for the group member and
thus likely to influence purchasing behavior.
These three group characteristics are manifested in groups defined by e d u c a t i o n ,
income, race, occupation and age. For example, within the same geographic area, highlyeducated, young, white university professors
and poorly-educated, young, white factory
workers could both form highly-exclusive,
distinctive, and homogeneous groups whose
members rely heavily on the purchasing
habits and symbolic product meanings held
by other group members when they behave in
the marketplace. While the purchasing habits
of members of these groups may appear to be
quite dissimilar, they are alike in that they are
highly affected by symbolic interactionism.
Consumers characterized by one or more of
these attributes are likely to purchase and consume products based on symbolic meaning.
The use of a lifestyle-based approach such as
the VALS2 typology mentioned above is one
method of identifying these consumers.
30
The latter two characteristics also influence
the sense of belonging for the group member.
The more frequently a group interacts, the
more opportunities exist for members to
observe and evaluate each other's purchasing
behavior. The family or a student's classmates
exemplify this type of group. The more formal
a group is, the stronger will be the norms pressuring the individual to conform. For example,
highly-formal groups, such as managerial
employees within an organization, exhibit
strong norms concerning modes of attire which
are often strictly adhered to and thus influence
purchasing behavior.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
General Exemplary Segments
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
Members of certain specific consumer segments, defined on the basis of selected demographic and psychographic variables, seem to
exhibit the above-outlined consumer and group
characteristics, and therefore should be likely
to engage in symbolic purchasing behavior:
(1) Children, teenagers and young adults,
because of the importance of social group
membership, periods of role transition (entering high school, college or the working world),
and increased levels of disposable income and
independence. The influence of aspirational
reference groups will likely be especially
strong, as the consumer becomes aware of new
social groups to which he may desire to have
affiliation. This propensity to be influenced by
aspirational reference groups typifies the
VALS2 lifestyle category of Experiencers.
(2) Upwardly mobile individuals, especially
the "nouveau-riche", because of their ability
and desire to belong to exclusive social organizations, their practice of conspicuous consumption, and their ability and propensity to
purchase high-priced, luxury items. The selfimage ideal of these "Upper Americans" is
"spending with good taste" (and being so
judged). 2 These consumers exemplify the
Actualizer and Achiever lifestyle categories in
the VALS2 model. Upwardly mobile individuals in their prime child-rearing years, regardless of their income or social status, are very
prone to symbolic purchasing behavior
because of the additional role transition possibilities and parental responsibilities associated
with their child's activities outside the home.
It should be noted that within these market
segments, propensity to exhibit symbolic purchasing behavior will vary. The probability of
such behavior will be highest among those
consumers relatively new to the segment and
those with the highest levels of the following
personality characteristics: insecurity and status-directedness. Again, the VALS2 typology of
lifestyle categories serves as one approach for
identifying consumers with such characteristics. It identifies the Striver category as one in
which the members exhibit a relatively high
level of insecurity by stating that what drives
them is a desire to emulate the people they
wish they were.7 While the three VALS2 categories dealt with here—Strivers, Achievers and
Actualizers—all display a tendency to structure their behavior based on observations of
those around them, the Achiever group is the
most status-oriented - they favor goods and services that allow them to show off their success
to their peers.7 Formulation of additional processes of identifying these status-oriented individuals should be a topic for future research.
Further adding to the difficulty involved in
identifying both who will exhibit symbolic
purchasing behavior and when they will
exhibit it, is the fact that each purchasing situation carries with it unique conditions and
considerations which may influence the
importance of product symbolism. In addition
to the examples and guidelines presented here,
the marketer must ask himself relevant situation-specific questions concerning market segmentation and ones concerning each variable
of the marketing mix. A sampling of these
types of questions is presented in Exhibit 2.
Marketing Mix Implications
Society or relevant reference groups ultimately define the symbolic meaning of the
product, but marketers can help shape and
reinforce these definitions through careful
manipulation of marketing mix variables. 3 It
should be the goal of this process to send out
evidence fostering the creation of a consistent
and favorable symbolic image of the product.
Successful management of product symbolism requires that strategies for all four mix
variables (product, promotion, price, distribution) be planned with the goal of consistency
in mind. If one variable is not consistent with
the others, the symbolic image could be
obscured and adversely altered. Although each
mix variable will be addressed separately, the
need for coordination in actual strategy formulation cannot be overemphasized.
31
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
Exhibit 2
Some Questions to Ask Regarding
Symbolism's Relevance in
Marketing Strategy
Segmentation Variables:
Are current purchasers of the product category likely to buy for symbolic aspects?
Current customers of brand? If yes, what
reference groups are relevant?
Are there other segments that might find
symbolic attributes important? If yes, are
there possible negative effects to the current
customer base of focusing on the additional
target(s)?
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
Marketing Mix:
Product:
Does the product category currently have
symbolic appeal? The brand? Are other
firms benefitting from symbolic association?
What is the relative emphasis of tangible
and symbolic attributes to a consumer's
choice?
What brand features, tangible and intangible, can be used to develop a symbolic
appeal?
Are there any accessory products that
might be developed to produce a symbolic
group?
Promotion:
What feature-symbol benefit linkages
should be stressed to enhance symbolic
imagery?
What slice-of-life situation can be used to
communicate symbolic relevance?
Is there a suitable celebrity spokesperson
for symbolic enhancement?
Pricing:
What is the price of the brand relative to
the competition? Higher, same, lower?
Is the relative price congruent with the
desired symbolic appeal?
Distribution:
Is the current mix of retail outlets congruent with the desired symbolism? What outlets should be dropped or added?
32
Product
An initial element in formulating product
strategy based on symbolic aspects entails consideration of the types of products likely to be
purchased for symbolic reasons. Because symbolic purchasing behavior is likely to involve
complex decision making, it can be reasoned
that the following types of products would
likely be purchased partly for their symbolic
value: (1) High priced products (e.g., boats,
designer fashions, luxury automobiles). (2)
Products associated with performance risks
(e.g., sporting equipment, nutritional supplements, sports cars). (3) Complex products (e.g.,
home entertainment systems, boat motors,
portable CD players). (4) Specialty goods (e.g.,
gourmet foods, fine jewelry, formal wear). (5)
Products associated w i t h one's ego (e.g.,
cologne, alcoholic beverages, clothing).1
The purchase of a high-performance sports
car, such as a Porsche or Ferrari, serves as an
example of all of the above product-related
characteristics affecting purchasing behavior.
However, it is not necessary for a product to
exhibit all of these attributes to be purchased
for its symbolic value; one or two of these traits
is often sufficient. For example, Air Jordan basketball shoes, while being associated with performance risks and, in many cases, associated
with one's ego, are not high-priced in absolute
terms, are certainly not complex, and are not a
specialty good because many substitutes exist
and they are available in a wide range of store
types and locations.
In addition to these five product characteristics, the special social nature of symbolic consumption merits the inclusion of other product
types: products closely tied to social roles, and
publicly-consumed products, especially ones
which are expressive in nature. The first type
of product would be especially likely to be
purchased for symbolic reasons if the consumer has little or no experience with the
product category in question or with the
demands of the role. As for publicly-consumed
and expressive products, the ease with which
the product can be observed by others would
tend to increase a consumer's sensitivity to
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
symbolic significance. For example, consider
the commonality of clothing worn within such
groups as businessmen—suits and ties—and
fishermen—baseball caps and jeans. The fact
that this clothing is worn during performance
of a social role and is often done so in open
view of relevant referents attaches symbolism
to these clothing products so strongly that they
acquire "uniform" status to the consumer.
When symbolic purchasing behavior takes
place because of role transition, opportunities
exist for development of new products and services. When consumers are confronted by
these uncomfortable situations, they look to
the symbolic definitions of products to help
them act in the proper manner. Marketers
should consider developing products that can
be added to the existing set of props deemed
necessary for successful role performance. This
is a viable strategic consideration because symbolic purchasers often buy products in symbolic groups based on past or accompanying
purchases. For example, to appeal to the consumer segment that perceives a Rolex watch, a
Brooks Brothers suit and Johnson Murphy
shoes as a symbolic whole, a firm may want to
introduce other apparel products, such as
dress shirts or outerwear that complement the
existing products in the symbolic group. LeviStrauss has done something similar to this
with the introduction of shirts, shoes and
socks to complement their line of blue jeans.
This principle was also employed by Harley
Davidson several years ago when they introduced their own brand of beer, Heavy Beer,
and more recently when they introduced their
own line of clothing, MotorClothes, all in an
attempt to complete the symbolic whole of
products perceived as necessary by the Harley
Davidson motorcycle enthusiast or aspirant.
Another product strategy objective should be
to develop and design products offering visible
physical attributes that can serve to provide
the appropriate and desired symbolism. For
example, "power" watches and pens (i.e.,
products that indicate the owner possesses
power over others), have a notable absence of
certain mechanical features in their design.
The simplistic nature of a watch with no
numerals or markings symbolizes good taste
and self confidence among certain groups of
consumers. Actual and aspirational members
of these groups are inclined to purchase the
symbols embedded in this product design to be
accepted.
As always, when dealing with the product
variable of the marketing mix, it should be
remembered that adequate product performance is expected by the consumer. Even if all
of the other marketing variables have done
their job of symbolic definition transfer, a
faulty or inferior product can mean disaster.
For example, if several members of a group of
women at a health club purchase Nike CrossTrainers for aerobics class based on shared
symbolic value, and, after a relatively short
period of use, notice the shoes showing signs
of deterioration, the whole group may reevaluate the appropriateness of the product. At the
very least, those who are dissatisfied with, and
embarrassed by inadequate product performance in this social setting, will not repurchase the product. A poorly designed and
manufactured product will not enjoy long-run
survival on symbolic value alone.
The nature of product symbolism is also
often quite volatile and potentially disastrous
if not properly managed. At one time, Izod
shirts with the highly visible alligator emblem
enjoyed a very favorable image among certain
market segments. As the symbolism diffused
through other—specifically younger—market
segments, the symbolism attached to the product changed to a point where what the
emblem symbolized—prestige—was rebelled
against, and the shirts were avoided by those
who once held them in high esteem. The everchanging nature of product symbolism and the
very real possibility that it may become detrimental to overall product or company performance necessitates that marketers continually
monitor the symbolic image diffusion process.
One company that has exhibited an ability to
manage this process well despite being in a
very dynamic and competitive environment is
Nike. They have been able to continually
33
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
introduce products and market them successfully based on an awareness of changing product symbolism. For example, as symbolism
towards their athletic footwear has evolved,
they have been successful marketing them as
"high-tech" products as well as "fashion"
accessories. Nike realizes that although their
products are not strictly "fad" products, they
will nevertheless routinely become obsolete
because of changing consumer perceptions
and have designed their system of product
development with this in mind.
Frank Sinatra, Eric Clapton, Phil Collins, and
Steve Winwood. It is always made clear, especially in the Sinatra commercial, that the purpose of the campaign is to portray Michelob as
a status symbol and as a beer for trendy, young,
attractive socialites. In the Sinatra commercial,
people of this type are milling around an elegant nightclub drinking Michelob, where, it
was implied, that Sinatra was performing. The
message is that if you want to be accepted by
people similar to those in the commercial,
drink Michelob beer and be seen doing so.
Implied in this discussion of product development from the symbolic interactionist perspective is the fact that the overriding concern
of development activities should be to offer a
product that presents a consistent and complete symbolic image. The product's physical
features, brand name, brand insignias, and
level of product quality should all serve to further this symbolic picture to present to potential consumers.
Advertising following the steps outlined in
the above process is quite common. It is especially prevalent in specialty print media
because of the exclusivity and homogeneity of
the groups who subscribe to and read them.
Regardless of the specific subject matter of
these narrowly-targeted media, advertisers are
apparently taking advantage of the fact that
readers are prone to high levels of symbolic
purchasing behavior.
Promotion
Both actual and symbolic features of the
product should be used collectively to define
overall product benefits, thereby serving to add
substance to the abstract symbolism proposed
and, at the same time, providing associative
meaning to actual physical product features.
As an example of this, a recent Toyota Camry
print ad features both a picture of a successfullooking businessman, a picture of the car, and
a written description of several performance
features of the car. The copy integrates the performance features with the symbolic benefits
by comparing situations encountered on the
road with situations encountered in the corporate boardroom and by stressing the word
power and its connotations in both settings.
Promotion, and advertising in particular,
should play a major role in the transferal of
symbolic meaning by associating the actual
consumer good or service with the symbolic
representation of the product. The task of
advertising and other promotional efforts in
the process of symbolic meaning transfer is
fourfold. First, promotion should project to the
audience the actual symbols that are to be
associated with the product. Second, the relevant referents upholding the product symbolism should be conveyed. Third, promotional
efforts should communicate which particular
societal segments are to find this symbolic
transferal pertinent to their needs. Fourth, the
benefits received by accepting the proposed
symbolism should be delineated.
The "The Night Belongs to Michelob" campaign for Michelob beer serves as an example
of this process in action. This campaign, most
notably the television portion, features a variety of separate commercials all based on the
main theme and featuring nightclub atmospheres with well-known musical stars such as
34
Normally the main benefit conveyed by promotional efforts should be the increased likelihood of social acceptance through the use of
the product in the prescribed manner.
Depiction of such a scenario is best done using
a slice-of-life format. Such a format also serves
to communicate to the audience that it is normal and legitimate to be concerned about being
socially accepted.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
Promotions designed to effect symbolic
meaning transfer should tend to be mildly
ambiguous in their content presentation.
Specifically, actual promotional messages
should be explicit enough to convey clearly
the proposed symbolism to the target audience, but not be so explicit that the message is
ignored because of its direct, authoritative
nature. Commanding someone to accept your
proposed abstract symbolism will likely not
be effective. A better strategy would be to suggest these abstract product-symbol associations and to let the viewer make the ultimate
decision as to whether or not to accept the
proposed symbolism as fact. For instance,
while perfume and cologne advertisements
don't actually say that members of the opposite sex will be more attracted to you, their
symbolic content is usually strong enough to
make the necessary associations.
A celebrity endorsement in an advertisement
often representsan attempt to stress the symbolic features and benefits of the product. 4
Possession of the endorsed product signifies
something in common with the celebrity. As a
result, the consumer may purchase the product
because he personally thinks that having the
same product as the celebrity will improve role
performance. Reflexive evaluation, which is
the tendency of a person to speculate as to the
nature of others' thoughts about himself, may
also factor into the purchase decision as the
consumer may believe that product possession
will stimulate relevant referents to associate
the user with the celebrity endorser in some
manner. Large sums of money are routinely
spent by advertisers to utilize the services of
influential celebrities, particularly sports figures. Basketball superstar Michael Jordan of
the Chicago Bulls makes an estimated $5 million annually on endorsements for such companies as Nike, Chevrolet and McDonalds. 6
Although purchase of any of the products
Jordan endorses for these companies may
result from the consumer wishing to have
something in common with him, Jordan's
endorsements for Nike, particularly those for
the Air Jordan line, are clearly the most heavi-
ly symbolism-oriented. This is because the
product being endorsed is one which Jordan
uses in his role as a professional basketball
player, and he is recognized as an expert performer of this role. Relative to the endorsements Jordan does for the other two
companies, being associated with Nike basketball shoes allows the consumer to be more able
to perceive that purchase of the product will
facilitate improved role performance.
Another important implication for promotional strategy, and for advertising in particular, is that because of the symbolism inherent
in many products, additional testing of promotional messages is necessary. In addition to
standard copytesting measures, advertising
messages should also be tested to monitor the
appropriateness of the symbols that are extracted by the consumer. It is important to ensure
that consumers understand the symbolic
appeal, identify with the associated referent,
and relate to the symbolism in a positive manner. Development of suitable measures is an
important avenue for research efforts.
Pricing
Although promotional tactics and product
considerations will often serve as the primary
vehicles for the transfer of symbolic meaning,
pricing strategy plays a major supportive role.
The main goal of pricing should be to maintain
and reinforce promotional efforts of symbolic
meaning transfer.
The nature of the symbolic image of the
product should serve to warrant a relatively
high price. A high relative price should connote a higher level of quality and enhanced
perceived role performance capabilities to consumers engaged in symbolic purchasing behavior, especially in situations where the
consumer lacks role knowledge and product
experience. In turn, this price-quality relationship reinforces the image of a symbolicallydefined product by giving it prestige status in
the eyes of the consumer, who is, after all, supposedly looking for something to achieve a
sense of belonging through product purchase
and consumption.
35
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
In addition to the fact that a relatively high
product price connotes high product quality
and enhanced role performance capabilities to
the symbolic purchaser, high prices may also
be set simply because consumers prone to this
type of shopping behavior would be reasoned
to be relatively price-insensitive. In symbolic
purchasing, price plays a minor role in the
decision process. 1 Paying the high price and
possessing the symbols may well in fact be
necessary antecedents to reaching the goal of
social acceptance.
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
Distribution
Distribution, like pricing, can serve to reinforce the symbolic image put forth by the
promotional campaign. Through implementation of a selective, or even an exclusive distribution strategy, the high-quality unique
image of a symbolically-defined good can be
further enhanced.
Selective distribution requires the careful
examination and choice of the number and
type of outlets through which the product
will be offered. This distribution option
would be most effective for symbolicallydefined goods which are not expensive in
absolute terms, but are still at the upper end
of the price range in their product category,
such as trendy or stylish clothing or respected
brand-name jewelry. Because such types of
products may be purchased relatively frequently, selective distribution offers the
advantage of providing enough outlets so that
the product will always be readily available
to the consumer when needed.
An exclusive distribution strategy may be
warranted to reinforce the symbolic nature of
such high-priced specialty goods as exotic foreign sports cars or designer label formal wear.
In these cases, the exclusivity connoted by the
product only being obtainable at one location
within the geographical area adds to the symbolic mystique of these prestige products, provided that the image of the exclusive
distributor is complementary. For example, the
fact that Rolls Royce dealerships are located
only in single locations in selected major
36
metropolitan areas adds to the overall symbolic image of the product.
It is important to note that the use of a
selective or exclusive distribution strategy
should not necessarily be limited to highpriced specialty goods. The perceived or real
degree of exclusivity offered by these two
strategies can also be used to manage the symbolism of other, less-unique products. A competitive advantage could be established by
taking a product in a more or less commodity
type of product category with few real product differences and symbolically differentiating it based on its u n i q u e method of
distribution and availability which, in turn,
would symbolize higher relative quality. This
type of strategy has been implemented by several marketers of pet food, such as Science
Diet whose product is available only through
veterinary offices and kennels. This selective
distribution strategy is reinforced by promotional efforts that stress the product's superior
nutritional value, in addition to its nontraditional place of availability to differentiate it
from ordinary pet food.
Important to all of these methods of symbolic meaning enhancement through distribution strategy is the symbol retail image fit.
Specifically, the image of the chosen retail
outlet must complement the symbolic image
of the product. Marketers should be aware
that other products that the retailer carries
will often affect the image of their product.
As an example of this awareness, colognes
and perfumes such as Aramis, Yves Saint
Laurent and Elizabeth Taylor's Passion are
available only in fine department and clothing stores and not available at mass merchandise chain stores where other products with
dissimilar images are sold. The marketers of
these prestige products are concerned that by
being available at a location that has a less
than optimal image may damage or weaken
the symbolic image enjoyed by their products
and make them seem less appropriate to the
target consumer.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Summary and Conclusions
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
The fact that people interact with other societal members and groups and behave towards
objects based on these interactions have relev a n c e for all facets of m a r k e t i n g strategy.
Careful attention to symbolic detail can facilitate a n d e n h a n c e the effectiveness of one's
marketing effort. The importance of symbolic
purchasing is clearly evident when one considers t h a t t h e t h r e e s t a t u s - o r i e n t e d VALS2
lifestyle categories mentioned in this paper—
Strivers, Achievers, and Actualizers—account
for an estimated thirty to forty percent of the
A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n . 7 It is i m p o r t a n t to
remember that symbolic purchasing occurs freq u e n t l y in all w a l k s of life, r e g a r d l e s s of
income or social status.
It must be noted that symbolic interactionism affects the purchase of both goods and service product offerings. It could even be argued
that because services are harder to differentiate
than are goods because of their inherent intangibility, symbolic meanings play a more important role in the purchase of services as opposed
to the purchase of physical goods. These symbolic meanings could well h e l p to add perceived tangibility and substance to the service
offering, thus serving to differentiate it from
the competition. For example, "gold" credit
cards hold distinctly different symbolic meanings in our society, as o p p o s e d to ordinary
credit cards. There is a need to consider and
cultivate the symbolic meanings associated
w i t h b o t h n e w a n d existing services. More
detailed examination of the effects of symbolic
interactionism on the purchase of service produ c t s is n e e d e d a n d s h o u l d be t h e t o p i c of
future research.
The following eight points summarize the
major ideas offered in this article:
1. Product symbolism affects the conception
an individual has of himself, his role performance, and is particularly likely to be important when a consumer lacks role knowledge.
2. As particular reference groups tend to
have identifiable characteristics and unique
forms of symbolic purchasing behavior, market
segmentation in terms of such group characteristics as degree of exclusivity and formality is a
useful means of pinpointing appropriate segments. In addition, the use of consumer chara c t e r i s t i c s t h a t r e l a t e to g r e a t e r s y m b o l i c
purchasing tendencies, such as one's placing
importance on social advancement or being in
a period of role transition, should enhance the
value of segmentation and targeting. Children,
teenagers, young adults and upwardly mobile
individuals typify general segments that possess these characteristics.
3. A company can enhance symbolic purchasing behavior of its product through careful
attention to providing a favorable symbolic
image using all elements of the marketing mix
in a consistent, congruent fashion.
4. Regarding product strategy, it is important to keep in mind that certain types of produ c t s are m o r e l i k e l y to b e p u r c h a s e d for
symbolic value—expensive, complex specialty
goods that possess a degree of social or perform a n c e risk. P u b l i c l y - c o n s u m e d , expressive
products and ones tied to social roles also tend
to be p u r c h a s e d for symbolic reasons. New
product development efforts can be directed to
offering groups of products that provide a symbolic whole. Attention should be directed to
the visible product attributes that provide the
desired symbolism and, above all, to ensuring
product quality.
5. Promotions designed to effect symbolic
meaning transferal should project the actual
symbols that are to be associated w i t h the
product, the relevant referents upholding the
symbolism, the target segments to which the
message is directed and the benefits of accepting the proposed symbolism. Both actual and
symbolic features of the p r o d u c t should be
used collectively to define the product benefits, and the appeal should be mildly ambiguo u s to m i n i m i z e n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n s of t h e
audience. A celebrity endorser can be an effective means of communicating the desired symb o l i s m , p r o v i d e d t h e e n d o r s e r is c l o s e l y
associated with the roles in which the product
would be used.
37
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING
6. Products purchased for symbolic value
can command a high relative price due to price
insensitivity. It also provides a prestige status
for the product.
7. Distribution strategy should ensure that
the outlets carrying the product have an image
t h a t c o m p l e m e n t s t h a t of t h e p r o d u c t .
Restricted availability may serve to enhance
the symbolic value of the product.
8. Symbolic interactionism equally effects
the purchase of consumer services and physical goods.
Marketers must not only stay informed on
what certain products or brands mean to individuals or social groups, but must also realize
that they can help create the symbolic image
their product will have in the marketplace. The
goal for marketers should be to manage their
product's image through a clear and consistent
marketing program targeted to those consumers
who find the symbolism most relevant.
End Notes
1. Assael, Henry, Consumer
Publishing, 1987.
Behavior
and Marketing
Action,
3rd ed. Boston: PWS-Kent
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
2. Coleman, Richard P., "The Continuing Significance of Social Class to Marketing," Journal of
Consumer Research, 10 (December 1983), pp. 265-280.
3. Hirschman, Elizabeth C., "Comprehending Symbolic Consumption: Three Theoretical Issues,"
in Proceedings of the Conference on Consumer Esthetics and Symbolic Consumption, 1980,
pp. 4-6.
4. McCracken, Grant, "Who is the Celebrity Endorser? Cultural Foundations of the Endorsement
Process," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (December 1989), pp. 310-321.
5. Meltzer, Bernard N., John W. Petras, and Larry T. Reynolds, Symbolic Interactionism:
Varieties and Criticism. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1975.
Genesis,
6. Ransom, Lou, "Michael Jordan Leaps to Success," Jet, 76 (June 12, 1989), p p . 53-54.
7. Riche, Martha Farnsworth, "Psychographics for the 1990s," American
1989), pp.24-26, 30-31, 53-54.
Demographics,
11 (July
8. Solomon, Michael R., "The Role of Products as Social Stimuli: A Symbolic Interactionist
Perspective," Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December 1983), pp. 319-329.
38
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
This article has been cited by:
1. Meng-Shan Sharon Wu, Cheng-Hao Steve Chen, Bang Nguyen. 2015. Luxury brand purchases and the extended self. AsiaPacific Journal of Business Administration 7:3, 153-173. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
2. Choongsoon Lee, Sang-Mi Lee. 2015. Effects of Purpose of Visiting Coffee Shop on Customer's Ethics and Revisit Intention.
The Journal of the Korea Contents Association 15, 520-528. [CrossRef]
3. Won-Moo Hur, Jeong-Ju Yoo, Jin Hur. 2015. Exploring the Relationship Between Green Consumption Value, Satisfaction,
and Loyalty to Hybrid Car in Elderly Consumers. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries
25:10.1002/hfm.v25.4, 398-408. [CrossRef]
4. Leslie de ChernatonyBrand 1-2. [CrossRef]
5. Theodore L. Waldron, Greg Fisher, Chad Navis. 2015. Institutional entrepreneurs' social mobility in organizational fields.
Journal of Business Venturing 30, 131-149. [CrossRef]
6. Anees Ahmad, K. S. Thyagaraj. 2015. Understanding the Influence of Brand Personality on Consumer Behavior. Journal of
Advanced Management Science 38-43. [CrossRef]
7. Cagri Yalkin, Richard Rosenbaum-Elliott. 2014. Talking Fashion in Female Friendship Groups: Negotiating the Necessary
Marketplace Skills and Knowledge. Journal of Consumer Policy 37, 301-331. [CrossRef]
8. Kaleel Rahman. 2013. “Wow! It's cool”: the meaning of coolness in marketing. Marketing Intelligence & Planning 31:6,
620-638. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
9. Katherine Shaw, Pauline Sullivan. 2013. Retail place attachment: a qualitative study of apparel shoppers. Journal of Global
Fashion Marketing 4, 284-298. [CrossRef]
10. Abou Bakar, Richard Lee, Cam Rungie. 2013. The effects of religious symbols in product packaging on Muslim consumer
responses. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ) 21, 198-204. [CrossRef]
11. Sung‐Joon Yoon. 2013. Antecedents and consequences of in‐store experiences based on an experiential typology. European
Journal of Marketing 47:5/6, 693-714. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
12. Won-Moo Hur, Hyun Kyung Kim, Hanna Kim. 2013. Investigation of the relationship between service values and loyalty
behaviors under high commitment. Service Business 7, 103-119. [CrossRef]
13. Won‐Moo Hur, Jeong‐Ju Yoo, Te‐Lin Chung. 2012. The consumption values and consumer innovativeness on convergence
products. Industrial Management & Data Systems 112:5, 688-706. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
14. Helen Woodruffe‐Burton, Susan Wakenshaw. 2011. Revisiting experiential values of shopping: consumers' self and identity.
Marketing Intelligence & Planning 29:1, 69-85. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
15. Cleo Mitchell, Brian C. Imrie. 2011. Consumer tribes: membership, consumption and building loyalty. Asia Pacific Journal
of Marketing and Logistics 23:1, 39-56. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
16. Wendy Moody, Peter Kinderman, Pammi Sinha. 2010. An exploratory study. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management:
An International Journal 14:1, 161-179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
17. Mohammad Ali Zolfagharian. 2010. Identification, uniqueness and art consumption among bicultural consumers. Journal of
Consumer Marketing 27:1, 17-25. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
18. Wendy Moody, Peter Kinderman, Pammi Sinha, Kyung-Sook You. 2009. Identifying the Causal Relationships of Appearance
Management through an Analysis of One's Own Clothing and Wearing Experiences over a 10-day Period. Journal of the Korean
Society of Clothing and Textiles 33, 841-852. [CrossRef]
19. Yin He, Thecla SchiphorstDesigning Social Computing Using Traditions of Symbolism, Personalization, and Gift Culture
659-666. [CrossRef]
20. Yu-xiang ZhengA research on the impact of symbolic meaning of commodities on the conspicuous consumption behavior
509-516. [CrossRef]
21. Michael W. Allen, Richa Gupta, Arnaud Monnier. 2008. The Interactive Effect of Cultural Symbols and Human Values on
Taste Evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research 35, 294-308. [CrossRef]
22. Mohammadali Zolfagharian, Ann T. JordanMultiracial Identity and Art Consumption 343-367. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
[PDF]
23. Maria Piacentini, Greig Mailer. 2004. Symbolic consumption in teenagers' clothing choices. Journal of Consumer Behaviour
3:10.1002/cb.v3:3, 251-262. [CrossRef]
24. Thomas Tan Tsu Wee. 1999. An exploration of a global teenage lifestyle in Asian societies. Journal of Consumer Marketing
16:4, 365-375. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
25. Jean-Sébastien Marcoux, Pierre Filiatrault, Emmanuel Chéron. 1997. The Attitudes Underlying Preferences of Young Urban
Educated Polish Consumers Towards Products Made in Western Countries. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 9,
5-29. [CrossRef]
Downloaded by USP At 06:50 06 October 2015 (PT)
26. Leslie de Chernatonyi ∗, Sérgio C. Benlclo de Mello. 1995. Predicting brand preferences using self-concept theory. Journal
of Marketing Communications 1, 121-137. [CrossRef]