Download Chapter Five: Our Sea CHAPTER OUTLINE Around the

Chapter Five: Our Sea
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Around the Mediterranean
Hellenistic Civilization and the Eastern Mediterranean
The Western Mediterranean and Beyond
Becoming Greek
Hellenistic Cities
Women in the Hellenistic World
The Mixing of Cultures
Books, Science, and Philosophy
Rome: From Village to Nation
Early Days
Family and Society in Early Rome
The Organization of Power
Plebeian Gains
Rome: From West to East
Italy, Carthage, and the West
Greece and the East
Rome: From Republic to Empire
Changing Social Patterns
The Last Century of the Republic
Julius Caesar
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter begins with a discussion of the life of Alexander the Great, whose conquest of the Mediterranean changed the
face of the world. Alexander succeeded in spreading the ideas of the Greeks throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, beginning a
process known as Hellenization. His victories in Egypt, Asia, and Persia made him a legend even before his early death in 323 B.C.E.
After his unexpected death, Alexander s generals struggled to inherit his empire, eventually seeing it split between three different
dynasties. The longest lasting of these three empires was the Ptolemaic, which claimed control in Egypt and held power there until the
suicide of Cleopatra VII in 30 B.C.E. The other two dynasties, the Seleucid and the Antigonid, were both shadows of their original
incarnations by the second century B.C.E.
While the eastern Mediterranean thrived under a series of great civilizations, the western Mediterranean lived in the shadow
of their eastern neighbors. About the time of the Alexandrian conquests, however, a few civilizations began to emerge in the western
world that would one day overwhelm their eastern rivals. The two centers, located in central Italy and on the northern coast of Africa,
developed extensive trade routes and relations with the surrounding city states. The Etruscans, who were centered in central Italy,
produced tools and ornaments, and saw their engineers develop drainage and construction advances that would be added upon by the
Romans. The origins of the civilization are unclear, but it is clear that they were more advanced than their other Italian neighbors.
They had adopted many of the Greek gods, and constructed many temples in the Greek style. Later, much of what the Etruscans had
copied from the Greeks was in turn copied by the Romans.
While certain civilizations received much attention, most of the areas around the Mediterranean were occupied by farmers
and others who simply sought to survive. Most of these people traded with the others around the Mediterranean, allowing for the
spread of ideas throughout the region. People as well as goods travelled throughout the Mediterranean, and over the course of the 300
years from Alexander s death to Cleopatra s suicide, the region became united culturally as well.
The mixing of cultures occurred throughout the Hellenistic world, with the native inhabitants learning Greek and works of
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literary and political significance being translated into the Greek language. Upper-class women enjoyed considerable freedom in the
Hellenistic cities, especially in Egypt. Despite this, women played little role in the expansion of Hellenistic culture, although from time
to time a woman s name became known to the masses. Consorts of rulers gained in status and became increasingly well known,
although the most famous woman of this period, Cleopatra VII, was a ruler in her own right. Female infanticide was still practiced,
and the patriarchal system was still in place, limiting the roles that women were allowed to play.
The spread of Hellenistic culture and religion did not win the allegiance of the Jews of the Mediterranean: they remained
faithful to their god. After returning from the Babylonian captivity, they rebuilt the temple in Jerusalem and forged the foundations of
the Jewish religion, including texts and rituals. Eventually, after years of struggle, the Jews of Judaea were able to reach an agreement
with the Seleucid leadership and retain a limited autonomy within the Seleucid empire.
While Jews struggled against the Hellenization of their world, others attempted to spread ideas and words to all who could
read and hear them. The library at Alexandria was unmatched, containing over half a million rolls of papyrus and a community of
scholars who debated the ideas contained within them. Hellenistic artists created monuments to their monarchs, and most of these
portraits were realistic, rather than depicting the ideal of beauty. Science also became increasingly important, with math, astronomy,
and medicine leading the way. Scientific discoveries and debates became a major part of life in the Hellenistic world, and the
scientific and cultural discoveries would long outlive the empires created after Alexander s death.
The death of Alexander left something of a power vacuum in the Mediterranean, and the resulting rise to power of the
Romans filled that void. The legend of Romulus and Remus described the foundations of Rome, and the city was one of several which
was ruled by the Etruscan kings. About 500 B.C.E., Rome detached itself from Etruria and the monarchy, and the remaining Etruscans
were expelled or left the city. Rome became a republic, a state governed by a body of its citizens. All members of society identified
themselves based on clan, family, and tribe, and worship of ancestors was a crucial part of this. It was a patriarchal city, where males
dominated all aspects of life and kept women and children subordinate. Women who were unfaithful to their husbands could be sold
into slavery or even killed. Fathers appeared to have close ties to their children, and many of the names which children were given
reflected that closeness. In some cases, female children were embraced as well, although typically male children were more desirable
and generally received preferential treatment. Women were not sequestered, as they had been in Greek society, and in some cases
were allowed to administer their own dowries, but women still remained subordinate to men. Slavery was common, especially among
the more affluent members of society, and slaves worked primarily as servants and in the fields.
The Roman government reflected the difference between wealthy and poor. Under the Republic, the city came to be ruled
by elite landowners who served in the Senate. These men ruled all aspects of Rome, from economics to the military. While the poor
were allowed to participate in government, their voices were often unheard due to the voting procedures in the centuries. In time, the
plebeians, as those lesser members of society were known, developed tactics to make themselves heard, and the balance of power
began to shift. A series of Roman leaders subdued the eastern empires and made Rome the major power of the Mediterranean.
The expansion of Rome led to wars, with both nearby threats and eventually distant rivals. Initially, the Romans sought to
secure their borders, expelling the Etruscans and others on the peninsula. In time, this expansion came to threaten the other
Mediterranean powers, most importantly Carthage. These wars, which came to be known as the Punic Wars, led to the destruction of
Rome s greatest rival. The Romans also expanded into Greece, seizing Macedonia and the Greek mainland.
Social patterns also changed as Rome gained power. Slaves often rebelled to protest their treatment and the conditions of
their lives. The two most important rebellions, in 135 and 73-71 B.C.E., were crushed by the Romans but led many to fear future
revolts. Soldiers also had reasons to complain about their treatment, and those leaders who were willing to listen and to act on their
complaints found themselves followed with great loyalty. During the last years of the republic, as Rome struggled to deal with social
and military conflicts, those who were willing to support the plebeians and other lower groups often found themselves in power. The
Gracchi brothers, who advocated for land reform and other changes, were assassinated for their efforts, and those who chose to keep
their privileges at the expense of the less fortunates became known as optimates, the best.
One leader who had the support of the army behind him was Julius Caesar. Caesar served in a series of public offices, and
in 60 B.C.E. joined the First Triumvirate, an unofficial alliance that Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed to their mutual advantage.
Caesar eventually used this position to expand his own popularity, and by 48 B.C.E. he was declared Perpetual Dictator. His reign
lasted only five years, as he was assassinated by a group of conspirators who feared he was too powerful and needed to be eliminated.
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His heir, Octavian, and other allies formed a coalition to defeat the assassins and restore the republic, and the three leaders (Octavian,
Antony, and Lepidus) created the Second Triumvirate. There was far too much competition between Octavian and Antony, and
eventually they battled at Actium, with Octavian (later called Augustus) triumphing and Antony committing suicide. The last vestiges
of the Republic were dead, and Augustus was in supreme command of Rome.
KEY POINTS
Around the Mediterranean: Alexander the Great s successors form Greek kingdoms in the eastern Mediterranean; further west,
Carthage and Etruria link ancient civilizations with simpler societies on their borders.
Becoming Greek: The Greek presence transforms Mediterranean culture, making it Hellenistic and a haven for scholars, scientists,
and philosophers.
Rome: From Village to Nation:
Rome: From West to East:
A village on the Tiber River grows, rebels against Etruscan overlords, and constructs unique
social and political institutions.
Rome expands on the Italian peninsula, then to the west, then to the east, and makes the Mediterranean
a Roman sea.
Rome: From Republic to Empire:
Competition and war lead to the extinction of the Roman Republic and the elevation of an
emperor to rule the Roman world.
SUGGESTED FILMS
The Assassination of Julius Caesar. McGraw-Hill, 27 minutes
Cities of the Ancient World: Rome and Pompeii. Questar, 60 minutes
Julius Caesar: Rise of the Roman Empire. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 22 minutes
Spirit of Rome. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 29 minutes
Ancient Rome. Coronet, 11 minutes
Hail Caesar: Julius Caesar. A&E, 50 minutes
Hail Caesar: Augustus. A&E, 50 minutes
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