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5/29/2009 Basic Botany by Aileen Bourne Part I: Biological classification Botany is the study of plants 1 5/29/2009 Classification or “putting into groups” is a part of taxonomy “which is a science that is used in Botany (and other life sciences) to help make sense of the large number of living things in that group. Carolus Linnaeus is often called the “Father of Taxonomy” He established groupings based on kinship and.. First used scientific names Linnaeus organized living things into groups that became more and more alike These groups are called Taxa 2 5/29/2009 The largest group of organisms is in the taxa called Kingdom There are 7 major taxa into which organisms are placed They are :Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species Linnaeus divided all the things in the world into either Plant or Animal Kingdom The Plant Kingdom has continued to be one of the major divisions of the living things. PLANT Kingdom is Made up of living things that are 1.photosynthetic (mainly terrestrial) 2.eukaryotes and 3. have cell walls Or ..can make their own food, have a nucleus and organelles in their cells and have cell walls with cellulose in them… 3 5/29/2009 Kingdoms are further divided into Phyla or Divisions Master Gardeners are mostly interested in the higher plants division…Tracheophytes. These are the plants with trachea or…”little pipes” which carry food and water throughout the plant. Divisions are divided into classes Of the tracheophytes we are mostly interested in class AngiospermaeAngiospermae- fruit covered seeded plants Angiosperm are divided into Monocots and Dicots scitec.uwichill.edu and class Gymnospermae… and the naked seeded plants scitec.uwichill.edu 4 5/29/2009 Monocot - A subclass of the Angiospermae in which the plants have one cotyledon in their seeds, have parallel leaf venation, and have flower parts in threes or multiples thereof Dicot - A subclass of the Angiospermae in which the plants have two cotyledons in their seeds, have pinnate or palmate leaf venation Typical classification of a red maple 5 5/29/2009 Category Name Characteristics Kingdom Plantae Organisms that usually have rigid cell walls and usually possess chlorophyll. Phylum Tracheophyta Vascular plants. Class Angiospermae Flowering plants, seed enclosed in ovary. Order Sapindales Soapberry order consisting of a number of trees and shrubs. Family Aceraceae Maple family. Genus Acer Maples and box elder. Species Acer rubrum Red maple. Physical Geography Now, from the classification of the red maple, the genus and species name are important They make up the scientific name of a plant. Acer rubrum http://www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/de ndrology/syllabus/arubrum.htm 6 5/29/2009 SCIENTIFIC NAMES ARE MADE UP OF 2 PARTS: THE GENUS NAME AND THE SPECIES NAME THE GENUS NAME IS LIKE YOUR LAST NAME … as Jones THE SPECIES NAME IS LIKE YOUR FIRST NAME …as Gregory Acer rubrum= maple, red Genus name Places the plant in a particular group As maplemaple-box elder group This group may have several plants in it www.extension.umn.edu/ Species name Tells exactly which one of several in a genus group we are talking about This is the most specific group Only 1 plant type www.extension.umn.edu 7 5/29/2009 The term species means “kind ofof-”. A more technical definition of species is a group of interbreeding organisms that do not ordinarily breed with members of other groups and who produce offspring that can also reproduce. So…a species is 1 kind of living thing. Common names Can be confusing : www.nawwal.org www.aristov.com/photo/flower Some plants have the same common name Some plants have no common name Some plants have more than one common name Common names differ from place to place 8 5/29/2009 Plant scientific names… Are the only way to communicate which plant you mean -in any culture -in any location Makiko Scientific names are rather fun if you learn a few ways to know how they are used and how they are put together. 1. the genus name is Capitalized and either underlined or italicized 2. the species name is not capitalized, but it is underlined or italicized Ex. Cornus florida =flowering dogwood 9 5/29/2009 Various methods are used to pick the genus and species names Adjectives are often used Classical Latin names are used Greek names are sometimes used Names from Latin or Greek myths are used A. Examples of adjectives: Magnolia virginiana, "Virginian magnolia" (sweet bay); Camellia japonica, "Japanese camellia;", Quercus alba, "white oak;“ Pinus palustris, "swamp pine" (longleaf pine." These adjectives must match the genus name in gender, number, and case. SOME LATIN TERMS used as adjectives see site below or MG manual p 8 for many more acaulis = stemless alba = white barbata = bearded, hairy canadensis = from Canada digitata = (leaves) like a hand, with five lobes edulis = edible flava = yellow hirsuta = hairy http://theseedsite.co.uk/latin.html 10 5/29/2009 B.Classical Latin plant names, sometimes transferred by modern botanists to other plants: Quercus (oak) Rosa (rose) Pinus (pine) Acer (Maple C. Classical Greek plant names, sometimes transferred by modern botanists to other plants: Rhododendron (rhododendron, azalea) Narcissus (daffodil) Thuja (arbor vitae) Carya (hickory) Typha (cattail) Zea (corn) D. Names from Latin and Greek myths, are taken over by recent botanists for plant names: Nyssa (tupelo, gum) Andromeda (andromeda) Liriope (monkey grass) Iris (iris). 11 5/29/2009 Besides the genus and species names there are often other distinctive names added to scientific names Buxus microphylla var. japonica is the name for the variety of Japanese boxwood Cornus florida 'White Cloud' is the name for a cultivar of flowering dogwood A variety is a group of plants in a natural population that has distinctive features. A variety is propagated sexually and comes true from seeds. The varietial name is added after the name of the species and is preceded by the abbreviation "var." For example, Buxus microphylla var. japonica is the name for the variety of Japanese boxwood http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/quickref/general/scientific_names.html A cultivar is a plant selected by man for one or more unique traits and usually is propagated vegetatively in order to maintain those traits. If a new type of tomato was developed by cross pollination in a breeding program, it would be a cultivar. A cultivar name follows the species name and is enclosed within single quotation marks, not underlined or italicized, and each word begins with a capital letters. Cornus florida 'White Cloud' White Cloud http:// flowering dogwood www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/quickref/general/scientific_names.html 12 5/29/2009 Keys These are wonderful ways of finding out what your plant is, if you do not know. “keys” are usually found in book form They make use of particular features to identify the plant you may not know MAKING A DICHOTOMOUS KEY Here are two examples of keys to show how to key out organisms, such as a kangaroo, a cow, a bee and a spider. Shown are a branching key and a numbered key. key. 13 5/29/2009 Animals to be keyed out (Kangaroo, Cow, Bee and Spider) No internal Skeleton Internal skeleton (Bee & Spider) (Kangaroo & Cow) Six legs (Bee) Not six legs (Spider) Pouch present (Kangaroo) Pouch absent (Cow) Numbered key 1a. Internal skeleton……………………go to 21b. No internal skeleton……………………go to 3 2a. Pouch present……………………kangaroo 2b. Pouch absent……………………cow 3a. Six legs……………………bee 3b. Not six legs……………………spider Example: Main Key for plants of the Virginia Coast Reserve LTER compiled by Dave Richardson 1a. Woody plants. 2a. Erect trees and shrubs. 3a. NeedleNeedle-like leaves..... leaves.....see see Subkey I. I. 3b. Broad leaves. 4a. Opposite leaves. 5a. Opposite compound leaves.....see leaves.....see Subkey II. II. 5b. Opposite simple leaves.....see leaves.....see Subkey III. III. 4b. Alternate leaves. 6a. Alternate compound leaves.....see leaves.....see Subkey IV. IV. 6b. Alternate simple leaves.....see leaves.....see Subkey V. V. 2b. Vines and brambles.....see brambles.....see Subkey VI. VI. 1b. NonNon-woody plants. 7a. Vines and brambles.....see brambles.....see Subkey VI. VI. 7b. Other herbaceous plants. 8a. Leaves linear with parallel veins and bladeblade- hairhair- or needleneedle-like in shape; flowers indivually inconspicuous. 9a. Plants terrestrial or at least not totally aquatic and not usually fully submerged (Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes). 10a. Stem triangular, mainly solid, without joints.....see joints.....see Subkey VII. VII. 10b. Stem round. 11a. No branches in inflorescence (look close to make sure it doesn't just have branches that are atlantic.evsc.virginia.edu 14 5/29/2009 Part II: Plant parts and function 2 categories of plant parts 1. vegetative parts Roots Stems leaves 2. sexual parts flower buds flowers fruit seeds Roots: Function 1. anchor plant 2. absorb water and minerals 3. transport food and water 4. store food 15 5/29/2009 There are two major types of root systems in plants: Taproot systems have a stout main root with a limited number of sideside-branching roots. Fibrous root systems have many, finely branched roots dandelion -taproot foxtail foxtail--fibrous /www.hcs.ohio www.hcs.ohio--state.edu: 16 5/29/2009 Internal root root's epidermis is its outermost layer of cells (Figure 3). These cells are responsible for absorbing water and minerals dissolved in water. Cortex cells are involved in moving water from the epidermis to the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and in storing food. Vascular tissue is located in the center of the root and conducts food and water Root hairs are small hairhair-like extensions of the outer layer of root CELLS. Roots can have an amazingly large number of root hairs. Root hairs increase the surface area of the roots, increasing the capacity to absorb nutrients and water. Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of roots. Root hairs absorb nutrients and water. Root hairs are often destroyed when a plant is dug from the soil. New root hairs will quickly form as long as the roots themselves are undamaged The roots of many wild plants and nearly all woody plants are associated with special kinds of fungi called MYCORRHIZAE. The fine threads of fungus grow around and often into the roots, replacing the root hairs. The fungus gets sugar from the plant and supplies it with water and nutrients. Other plants, particularly in the bean family form root nodules. These contain bacteria that take nitrogen from the air and convert it to fertilizer for the plant. A few other plants such as alder also form nitrogen fixing nodules. 17 5/29/2009 micorrhiza nodules Stems Stems are generally upright and above ground, easy to locate and identify. However, many stems grow below ground or are groundgroundhugging. A modified stem is recognizable because it includes buds and sometimes leaves. Buds and shoots generally develop on stems. They carry nutrients and water from the roots to the other parts of the plant. In some cases, stems also store food. 18 5/29/2009 functions They carry nutrients and water from the roots to the other parts of the plant. They also hold the leaves up to the light. In some cases, stems also store food. Nodes are places on the stem where leaves are attached and buds form. Roots often form at nodes of creeping plants and when cuttings are taken for propagation. Internodes are the segments of the stem between nodes. 19 5/29/2009 The quality and amount of available light and temperature affect the length of the internode. The distance between nodes can be long or short. This distance reflects growing conditions. Plants grown under poor light conditions may be spindly, with very long, thin, and weak internodes Stem Terminology - Shoot -A young stem (1 year old or less) with leaves. Twig -A young stem (1 year old or less) that is in the dormant winter stage (has no leaves) Branch -A stem that is more than 1 year old, typically with lateral stems radiating from it. Trunk -A woody plant's main stem. There are many stem variations in plants. Some variations are used as food, such as potatoes and asparagus. Others are sold in dormant condition for planting in the landscape, such as crocus corms and tulip bulbs. Many stem modifications provide opportunities for PROPAGATION. a bulb has a flattened stem at the base with fleshy leaves making up most of the structure a corm is an upright swollen stem, often enclosed in papery leaves a stolon is a stem that grows along the ground suface, such as a strawberry runner a rhizome is a horizontal underground stem, such as in bent grass or some irises 20 5/29/2009 a bulb has a flattened stem at the base with fleshy leaves making up most of the structure a corm is an upright swollen stem, often enclosed in papery leaves a stolon is a stem that grows along the ground surface, such as a strawberry runner a rhizome is a horizontal underground stem, such as in bent grass or some irises Corm of Gladiolus rhizomes of Jerusalem artichoke http://www.hcs.ohiohttp://www.hcs.ohiostate.edu:16080/mgonline/Botany/ One of the major functions of the stem is to move water, nutrients, and food through the plant. The internal tubes in stems act like the plumbing in a house or the blood vessels in people. As in humans, this system is called the vascular system. The foodfood-moving part of the vascular system is called the phloem (from leaves to roots) The waterwater-and and--mineralmineral-moving system is called the xylem (from roots to leaves) 21 5/29/2009 Cs sunflower www.hcs.ohio--state.edu www.hcs.ohio Meristems There are two areas of cell division or MERISTEMS contributing to the growth of a stem. The apical meristem at the tip increases the length of stem and produces new leaves and buds. The other meristem is the CAMBIUM that produces new phloem and xylem. In most plants (DICOTS) this is a ring of cells that increases the girth of the stem. In plants such as lilies and grasses (MONOCOTS) the cambium is scattered through the stem and does not remain active, so they cannot increase in girth Injury to the cambium layer in certain plants can kill the entire plant. For example, trees can be killed by GIRDLING damage to the cambium layer located just inside the bark. 22 5/29/2009 Names for stems based on how long it lives: 1. perennial lives more than 2 years. 2. annuals pass through their whole life cycle in one growing season 3. biennials use a 2 year growing season. Leaves Leaves are lateral outgrowths from the stem, most commonly flat, broad, and green. This maximizes their function of absorbing sunlight and transforming it into food. Leaves have evolved into many shapes and sizes, reflecting adaptations to the environment. Leaves generally consist of a stalk or PETIOLE and a blade or LAMINA. In simple leaves the lamina is in one piece. In compound leaves several pieces of lamina are joined to one petiole 23 5/29/2009 Leaf arrangement Leaf arrangement Alternate Whorled www.pssc.ttu.edu opposite basal 24 5/29/2009 The first leaves to appear when the seed germinates are often the seed leaves or cotyledons ). There can be only one (in MONOCOTS), two (in DICOTS) or many cotyledons (in conifers). Jewel weed (a dicot) , spiderwort ( a monocot) Jewel weed (dicot) //www.hcs.ohio--state.edu //www.hcs.ohio spiderwort (monocot) Specialized leaves SPINES function to protect the plant (eg. barberry). TENDRILS support the stems of climbing plants BRACTS are leaves associated with flowers; they may be green or brightly colored and mistaken for petals Scale leaves provide protection for buds and can be further modified for food storage to form a bulb 25 5/29/2009 www.hcs.ohio--state.edu: www.hcs.ohio Buds are undeveloped shoots and flowers. Buds are classified terminal or lateral. Another term for terminal is apical. Terminal buds can be identified by their location at the tip of a stem. Lateral buds are located at the sides of the stem. Flower buds are normally larger than VEGETATIVE buds. Cabbage and head lettuce are examples of very large terminal buds. Brussels sprouts are edible lateral buds. Broccoli is an example of edible flower buds remaining type of bud, ADVENTITIOUS (ad (ad--venven-TISH TISH--us), forms at any other location. Adventitious buds may form on the internode of the stem, at the edge of a leaf or at the cut on a stem or root. Stem and leaf cuttings can develop adventitious buds which also send down roots to form a complete new plant 26 5/29/2009 Flower The Flower: The flower is the reproductive unit of some plants (angiosperms). Parts of the flower include petals petals,, sepals sepals,, one or more carpels (the female reproductive organs), and stamens (the male reproductive organs). www.urbanext.uiuc.edu 27 5/29/2009 Female Reproductive Organs: The pistil is the collective term for the carpel(s). Each carpel includes an ovary (where the ovules are produced; ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style (a tube on top of the ovary), and a stigma (which receives the pollen during fertilization She’s a Pistil packin’ mama she’s got Stigma, she’s got Style. The Male Reproductive Organs: Stamen Stamenss are the male reproductive parts of flowers. A stamen consists of an anther (which produces pollen) and a filament. The pollen consists of the male reproductive cells; they fertilize ovules. Types of Flowers: Some flowers (called perfect flowers) flowers) have both male and female reproductive organs; some flowers (called imperfect flowers) flowers) have only male reproductive organs or only female reproductive organs. Some plants have both male and female flowers, while other have males on one plant and females on another. Complete flowers have stamens stamens,, a pistil pistil,, petals petals,, and sepals.. sepals Incomplete flowers lack one of these parts. 28 5/29/2009 Inflorescence Types Corymb - an inflorescence appearing to have a flat top; indeterminate inflorescence with outer flowers opening first Cyme - more or less flat topped, determinate inflorescence with outer flowers opening last Composite Head - a dense cluster of ray and disk flowers on a very short axis Umbel - indeterminate inflorescence ,usually but not necessarily flat topped, with the pedicles and peduncles arising from a common point; resembles the stays of an umbrella Spike - unbranched, elongated, simple, indeterminate inflorescence with sessile flowers Spathe and Spadix - a thick, fleshy flower spike (spadix) surrounded by a leaf or bract (spathe); ex: closet plant Solitary - borne singly or alone Panicle - indeterminate, branching inflorescence; the individual branches are either raceme or corymbcorymb-like Raceme - simple, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicelled flowers corymb umbel Composite head spike Spathe & spadix solitary panicle raceme cyme www.pssc.ttu.edu/pss1411cd/STRUCTUR/inflores/inflores.ht m Categories Determined By Parts Present Perfect - a flower that contains both pistillate (female) and staminate (male) parts; may or may not have petals or sepals Complete - has all four parts of the flower present: sepals, petals, pistil, and stamen Staminate - having stamens and no pistils; a male flower Pistilate - having pistils and no stamens; a female flower 29 5/29/2009 Fruit,, seedFruit seed-bearing structure of a flowering plant. A fruit is actually a ripened ovary, a component of the flower’s female reproductive structure Fruits Fleshy Fruits Berry - fruit with the pericarp fleshy throughout and seeds inside the fruit Tomato Specialized Berries Hesperidium - a berry with leathery exocarp and mesocarp; the endocarp is segmented and very juicy Orange Pepo - a berry with a hard and very thick exocarp or rind Cantaloupe Pome - a fleshy fruit produced by an inferior ovary; the endocarp enclosing many seeds is commonly called the core Apple Stone (or) Drupe - a fleshy fruit, usually one seeded; the seed is enclosed in a stony endocarp Cherry 30 5/29/2009 Dry Dehiscent Fruits - dry fruits which split along definite lines to release seeds at maturity Legume - single celled, splits along two sutures releasing the seeds Silique - consists of two cells, splits along two sutures releasing the seeds Capsule - short and rounded fruit, consists of more than one carpel Dry NonNon-dehiscent Fruits - dry fruits which do not split along definite lines to release seeds at maturity Acorn - single celled, single seeded fruit of oaks Samaras - a dry, nonnondehiscent, winged fruit Multiple fruits are actually bunches of fruits growing together, and each fruit has developed from its own flower. An aggregate fruit derives from one flower with several pistils, but a multiple fruit develops when the pistils of several distinct flowers mature and grow packed together 31 5/29/2009 www.backyardnature.net Plant Processes There are 4 major processes that plants depend on for growth and reproduction 1. photosynthesis 2. respiration 3. transpiration 4. sexual reproduction www.hcs.ohio--state.edu: www.hcs.ohio state.edu: Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is utilized to convert carbon dioxide and water into food to be used by plants. Oxygen is released into the air during the process. 32 5/29/2009 Light or solar energy is captured by chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves. It is then converted into chemical energy which is stored as starch or sugar. They are available to the plant as food or fuel. Plants differ from animals in that animals cannot manufacture their own food from light energy. The word photosynthesis means "to put together with light": 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy -> C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 Because all plants need light to grow they often compete for light. Shading of one plant by another should generally be avoided when planting. Some plants such as Hosta and ivy are shadeshade-adapted and may even be injured by high light conditions 33 5/29/2009 respiration The food that a plant stores is used by the plant for new growth. The process of converting stored food into usable energy is called respiration. It is similar to burning wood to release stored energy as heat and light. Just as fire requires oxygen to burn, respiration, or the "breaking down" of stored sugars, requires oxygen to release energy for new growth. Water and carbon dioxide are released during plant respiration. This is the same as in animal respiration. 34 5/29/2009 Respiration is essentially the opposite of photosynthesis. It uses food plus oxygen to change chemical energy into heat and an energy form usable by the plant. Light is not needed in this process. An example of a plant using stored food can be seen when a potato sprouts in storage C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6H2O + energy transpiration Transpiration is a necessary evil for plants. As they open their stomata to take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis they cannot help losing water by evaporation. . 35 5/29/2009 The loss of water through the stomata in the leaf pulls water up through the plant from the roots. The stream of water moving through the xylem also carries nutrients from the roots to other parts of the plant. When additional water is unavailable to the roots, as in winter or drought, wilting and plant damage can occur. reproduction Seed formation begins when the pollen is moved from the male part of the flower (the stamen) to the female part (the pistil). Pollination is the transport of pollen from the anther onto the stigma. Pollen can be carried by insects, other animals, or wind. encarta.msn.com 36 5/29/2009 When pollen touches the stigma, a long tube (the pollen tube) grows from the pollen down through the style until it reaches the ovary. Male sex cells travel down the pollen tube and unite with female sex cells in the ovary. This union of a male and female cell is called fertilization Self-fertile plants may be pollinated with Selfpollen from the same flower or other flowers on the same plant. Most plants are self--fertile self Some plants are selfself-sterile and cannot be fertilized by their own pollen. Pears, plums, and some apples are selfself-sterile. They require the presence of another variety of apple tree, a "pollinator" for fertilization. Fertilization results in an embryo which develops inside protective layers of tissue. The embryo and protective layers are called a seed. 37 5/29/2009 A seed consists of three parts: a Dormant Embryo, Embryo, a Storage Tissue, Tissue, and a Seed Coat. Coat. Germination “sprouting” Some seeds sprout with just water and reasonably warm temperatures. This is true of most common garden plants. Such seeds are often referred to as "seeds lacking dormancy." Wild species usually have some kind of deeper dormancy to avoid sprouting in late summer/fall when the seeds are dispersed. This assures that tender seedlings are not frozen at a young age, but do not appear until warm weather arrives in springtime. For these species it takes something more than just water and warmth to germinate. . 38 5/29/2009 Corn - a monocot bean - a dicot The mother plants of our "wild" species put their embryos into dormancy by using chemicals. Perhaps in hardy plants the vast majority use abscisic acid to keep their embryos from germinating too early. This chemical is broken down by enzymes in the embryo over time. The enzymes have a cold temperature optimum. Thus the enzymes are not active until early winter. The abscisic acid keeps the embryo dormant from dispersal to frost. After 6 weeks at about 4° 4° C, the optimum for the enzymes that metabolize abscisic acid, the AbA is metabolized completely. But now the cold soil keeps the embryo dormant until the warmth of spring (20° (20° C). It is an ingenious mechanism evolved in hardy plants. Seeds remain dormant or inactive until conditions are right for germination. All seeds need water, oxygen, and proper temperature in order to germinate. Some seeds require proper light also. Some germinate better in full light while others require darkness to germinate. When a seed is exposed to the proper conditions, water and oxygen are taken in through the seed coat. The embryo's cells start to enlarge. Then the seed coat breaks open and a root or radicle emerges first, followed by the shoot or plumule that contains the leaves and stem koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu 39 5/29/2009 40