Download The Crusades: A Short History

REL 1280
Lecture 5
P. C. Lo
20 Oct 2011
Outline
A.
B.
C.
D.
Nature
Different Intentions
Military Expeditions
Reactions and Assessments
1. Byzantine
2. Islamic
3. Jewish
4. Protestant
5. Modern Catholic
6. Present-day Historians’
E. War and Peace
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A. 性質：東征 vs. 東侵?
 十字軍東侵（Crusades expeditions）
“1096-1291年西歐天主教會、世俗封建主
和義大利富商對地中海東岸國家進行的侵
略戰爭。”
《中國大百科全書‧外國歷史卷，頁844》
 Aggression, Imperialism, Colonialism !!
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Anti-religious Perceptions
 “A series of holy wars against Islam
led by power-mad popes and fought by
religious fanatics.”
 “the epitome of self-righteousness and
intolerance, a black stain on the
history of the Catholic Church in
particular and Western civilization in
general.”
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 “A breed of proto-imperialists, the
Crusaders introduced Western
aggression to the peaceful Middle East
and then deformed the enlightened
Muslim culture, leaving it in ruins.”
Thomas F. Madden, “The Real History of the Crusades”
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中國大陸的“正統”看法
 “打著宗教聖戰的旗號，以軍事征服手段
挑起基督教文明和伊斯蘭文明、拜占庭文
明的衝突，企圖在歐、亞、非建立羅馬基
督教的世界統治。…謀求建立某種單一文
明的世界霸權…” 《西歐文明》，頁202。
 ”這場‘宗教戰爭’浩劫的主要動因，是羅
馬教廷為著擴張勢力，蓄意挑起歐、亞、
非有史以來最為慘烈的‘文明衝突’。”
頁203。
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“羅馬教廷大事編造穆斯林和塞爾柱突厥人
‘異教徒’在耶路撒冷如何褻瀆聖物、迫
害東方基督教徒與西歐朝聖者的輿論，…
其實，當時伊斯蘭文明圈內對基督教信仰
一直是寬容的，塞爾柱突厥人也無宗教的
狂熱偏狹，仍執行阿拉伯人統治時的宗教
寬容政策，…制造謊言的目的，是為了煽
動西歐人的宗教情緒，以保衛基督教的神
聖戰爭之名，掩蓋羅馬教廷遠征東方、謀
求世界霸權之實。” 《西歐文明》，頁203-4。
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臺灣 劉增泉 《西洋中古史》
十字軍東征的背景：
 1078AD 塞爾柱土耳其人（Seljuk Turks)
佔領耶路撒冷，“基督徒受苦的日子又開
始”
 政治因素
 宗教因素
 經濟因素
 社會因素
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Crusades
(Encyclopedia Britannica)
“military expeditions, beginning in the late
11th century, that were organized by
Western Christians in response to
centuries of Muslim wars of expansion.
Their objectives were to check the
spread of Islam, to retake control of the
Holy Land, to conquer pagan areas, and to
recapture formerly Christian territories;
they were seen by many of their
participants as a means of redemption
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and expiation for sins.”
“reconquista”
Re-conquest
反攻，收復失地
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B. Different Intentions
東征聖地：不同的意圖及動機
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Eastern Church (Orthodoxy)
Western Christians
Pope
Latin West leaders
Rulers and adventurers
Knights
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1. 東方教會 (Eastern Church)
基督教世界受不斷擴充的伊斯蘭世界威脅，
東西領土被征佔，教堂被毀滅，基督徒
受穆斯林統治。拜占庭（Byzantium）
所受威脅尤其嚴峻，國王Alexius侍機反
擊，要求西方教會差遣軍隊及武士相助。
Call for help from Byzantine Christians !!
An “opportunity of expressing love for
their oppressed or threatened
brothers in a just cause” (Jonathan RileySmith, The Crusades: A Short History, 1987,
p.xxix)
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Pre-Islamic Middel East
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Islamic Expansion
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Islamic Expansion to 1500
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Ambassadors from
Emperor Alexius （Byzantium)
 “They emphasized the hardships that
the Christians in the East must endure
until the infidel was driven back.” (Steven
Runciman, The First Crusade, 1980, p.40)
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Pope Urban II’s Appeal
“the new knight whose altruistic
participation in this war would be an
act of Christian charity, expressing
love of God and of his
neighbour….Greater love than this no
man hath, that a man lay down his life
for his friends (John 15:13)” (Jonathan
Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History, 1987, p.9)
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2. 西方基督徒
（Western Christians ）
小亞西亞被佔，西方教會東行往聖地朝聖路
途受阻；聖地也被佔，不容許基督徒朝
聖，從水路東來也沒用。
“The word [Crusade] itself was slow to
evolve, the expeditions often being
known at first as ‘pilgrimages’.” (Oxford
Dictionary of Christian Churches, 3rd ed., p.435)
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Pilgrimage Reason 1
 到聖人之地可治病
 找聖人遺物（holy relics），帶回西方教
會
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Head of John the Baptist
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Head of
John the
Baptist
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Hand of
John the
Baptist
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Pilgrimage Reason 2
 告解後要行補罪禮（penance），今世罪
和罰才可免  捐助修院、捐贈教堂、學
校、醫院、朝聖
 數十、數百、數千人上路
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Indulgence 大赦
Pope Urban II “sealed his remarks on the
merit of crusading by the grant at the
Council of Clermont [1095] of the
indulgence. … the popes of the time appear
still to have maintained that penances, selfimposed punishments for sin, could be
‘satisfactory’, by which they meant that the
pain and suffering thus voluntarily accepted
could outweigh the punishments God would
impose in this world or in the after-life for
sin.”
補罪禮、補贖己罪
Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades:
A Short History (1987), p.9.
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To avoid hell or purgatory

為天主而戰，戰死則一切罪得赦免

“Crusaders were encouraged by the
grant of indulgences and by the
status of martyr in the event of
death.” (ODCC, p.435)
“Plenary indulgence”，全大赦。

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煉
獄
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3. 教宗（Pope）
A. To re-unite the two churches
(Catholic and Orthodox) under Rome
B. To claim back the lost Holy Land for
Christ; Liberation of Jerusalem!
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The Great Schism, 1054
 Yet, “neither side condemned more
than individual clerics. Their
respective Churches were clearly
omitted from the condemnation.
Moreover, the other Patriarchates of
the East took no part in the quarrel”
(Seven Runciman, The First Crusade, 1980, p.38.)
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Claim it
back !!
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Jersualem
63 BC – 638 AD，羅馬、拜占庭統治
70 AD 耶路撒冷第二聖殿被毀
326-?? AD 君士坦丁母親建主誕堂及聖墓堂
638 AD 耶路撒冷淪陷於阿拉伯人
691 AD 耶路撒冷聖殿山上，石上的拱圓頂（
Dome of the rock, Qubbat al-Sakhra ）聖
所建成
 1035 AD The Masjid al-Aksa 清真寺於聖殿
山上建成
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
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Night journey of the Prophet to Jerusalem
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Holy Land lost!
“For Christianity, its [Islam’s] expansion meant
a catastrophe on a grand scale. In North
Africa Christianity disappeared almost
completely… The great churches of
Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine went
under. The patriarchates of Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerusalem sank into
insignificance. In short, since then the lands
in which Christianity originated…have been
lost.” (Hans Kűng, The Catholic Church: A Short History,
2001, p.67.)
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4. 西方教會及統治者（Latin
West leaders）
“the pope, the nobility, and Western society
at large had much to gain… Too many idle,
restless noble youths spent too great a
part of their lives feuding with each
other and raiding other people’s
lands. …100,000 of whom marched off
with the First Crusade” (Kagan et al. The
Western Heritage, 10th ed., 2010, pp.207-08)
See reading (1): Pope Urban II, Call For A
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 League of Peace: backfires
 Truce of God: doesn’t work
 To re-direct the fighting spirit against
the infidel and the heathen!
 Experiment in Spain succeeds
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5. 投機者及冒險者（Rulers
and Adventurers）
Economic gains 到東方發展貿易發財。
“The maritime powers of Italy, whose
assistance was indispensable to the
Christian armies, thought only of
using the Crusades for political and
economic ends.” (The Catholic Encyclopedia)
Republic of Venice
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6. 武士（Knights）
浪漫理想。
Knightly dreams
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劫後英雄傳
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呼籲（The Call）
 Address by Pope Urban II（教宗烏爾班
二世） in the Council of Clermont, 1095
 The enthusiasm was greater than
Urban had expected
 Reading (1): 這篇演說是以誰的名義發出?
內容是來自甚麼權威？
 如何形容要對付的“敵人”
 戰死有甚麼後果？
 呼籲誰來參與？ copyright P C Lo
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“A crusade was a holy war fought
against those perceived to be the
external or internal foes of
Christendom for the recovery of
Christian property or in defence of the
Church or Christian people.”
Jonathan Riley-Smith,
The Crusades: A Short History, 1987, p.xxviii
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C. Military Expeditions
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


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
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First Crusade took Jerusalem 1095
Second Crusade 1147-49
Third Crusade 1189-1192
Fourth Crusade 1202-1204
Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
Eighth Crusade 1270
Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
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Long Shot
“There was no leader, no chain of
command, no supply lines, no detailed
strategy. It was simply thousands of
warriors marching deep into enemy
territory, committed to a common
cause. Many of them died, either in
battle or through disease or
starvation.”
(reading 3: Madden, “The Real History of the
Crusades,”pp.4-5)
 Peasants Crusade
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 Princely Crusade
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Where’s the emperor?
“it raised disturbing questions about the
evident lack of imperial sponsorship
for the project. Emperor Henry IV
was well aware of this, for at one point
he offered to join the crusade himself.
But as he would not yield on the point
of lay investiture, his offer came to
nothing.” (cf. slide #28 of last lecture)
Jordan, Europe in the High Middle Ages, p.105.
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Capture of Jerusalem,
15 July 1099:
Eyewitness account
 “Our men pursued them; they chased
after them, killing them and smiting
them with their swords, as far as the
temple of Solomon, where there was
such carnage that our men walked in
blood up to their ankles….” (quoted in How to
Read Church History, vol. 1, NY: Crossroad, 2000, p.157. 【a
catholic press】)
 Written by a knight who took part in the
Crusade
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Letter to Pope Pascal II
September, 1099
“If you desire to know what was done
with the enemy who were found there,
know that in Solomon’s Porch and in his
temple our men rode in the blood of
the Saracens up to the knees of their
horses.” (Colman J. Barry, O.S.B., ed., Readings in
Church History, Newman Press, 1964, p.328)
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“The Jews of Jerusalem fled in a body
to their chief synagogue. But they
were held to have aided the Moslems;
and no mercy was shown to them. The
building was set on fire and they were
all burnt within.” (Steven Runciman, The First Crusade, 1980,
p.188.)
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2nd
Crusade
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1. Byzantine Perspective
 First Crusade
 Fourth Crusade
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1st Crusade: 15 July 1099
 Crusaders took Jerusalem
 “The Eastern Christians clergy of the
Holy Sepulchre were tortured to
extract from them details of where
the church’s relics and treasures were
kept.” (Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity, 2001, p.144)
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th
4
Crusade
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4th Crusade robbery
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

Images
Relics
Divine body and blood of Christ
Reliquaries
Ornaments cups
Altar
Patriarch’s seat
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“No one was without a share in the grief. In the
alleys, in the streets, in the temples,
complaints, weeping, lamentations, grief, the
groaning of men, the shrieks of women,
wounds, rape, captivity, the separation of
those most closely united…. Thus it was in the
streets, on the corners, in the temple, in the
dens, for no place remained unassailed or
defended the suppliants. All places
everywhere were filled full of all kinds of
crime. Oh, immortal God, how great the
afflictions of the people, how great the
distress!” Byzantine scholar Nicetas Choniates on the Sack
of Constantinople, John W. Coakley & Andrea Sterk, ed.,
P ,C vol.
Lo 1, 2004, p.336.
Readings in World Christian copyright
History
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 “from the outset, the pope lost control
of this enterprise….the crusade of
1204 being the first open rebellion
against the pontifical will” (Catholic
Encyclopedia)
 “Pope Innocent III, who had previously
excommunicated the entire Crusade,
strongly denounced the Crusaders. But
there was little else he could do.” (Madden)
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Impact to CatholicOrthodox Relationship
 no hope of re-union after the 1054
schism
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“The crusades definitively changed the
relationship between the churches of
East and West. The crusaders’
contemptuous treatment of Eastern and
Oriental clergy, the sacrileges
perpetrated during the sack of
Constantinople, the establishment of
the Latin patriarchates; all led to
lasting resent. Eastern Orthodox came
to see the pope as an enemy and the
Western church as a predatory
adversary.” (Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity, 2001,
“Crusade,” p.147)
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 “There was more hate for the Latins
than for the Turks. Hence the saying
‘Better to come under the turban than
under the tiara’.” (Roland Bainton, Christian Attitudes
Toward War and Peace, 1960, p.113)
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2. Islamic Perspective
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The Fall of Jerusalem 1099
 “In the Masjid al-Aqsa the Franks
slaughtered more than 70,000 people,
among them a large number of Imans
and Muslim scholars…. The Franks
stripped the Dome of the Rock of more
than forty silver candelabra,….a great
silver lamp…as well as a hundred and
fifty smaller silver candelabra and more
than twenty gold ones, and a great deal
more booty.” Arab historian Ibn al-Athir on the
Fall of Jerusalem, 1099. In John W. Coakley &
Andrea Sterk, Readings in World Christian History,
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vol. 1, 2004, p.334.
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“It was this bloodthirsty proof of
Christian fanaticism [i.e., the massacre
at Jerusalem in the 1st Crusade] that
recreated the fanaticism of Islam.
When, later, wiser Latins in the East
sought to find some basis on which
Christian and Moslem could work
together, the memory of the massacre
stood always in their way.” (Steven Runciman, The
First Crusade, 1980, p.188.)
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矛盾日深
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聖戰 vs.聖戰
Crusade
vs. Jihad
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3. Jewish Perspective
 “In July 1099….the knights of the
First Crusade and their rabble army
captured Jerusalem, massacring most
of the city’s non-Christian inhabitants.
Barricaded in their synagogues, the
Jews defended their quarter, only to
be burnt to death or sold into slavery.”
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 “The Latin Kingdom of the Crusaders
was that of a conquering minority
confined mainly to fortified cities and
castles.”
 “After the overthrow of the Crusaders
by a Muslim army under Saladin (1187),
the Jews were again accorded a
certain measure of freedom, including
the right to live in Jerusalem.”
Jewish Virtual Library
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Crusader.ht
ml
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4. One Protestant
Perspective
 “The Crusades failed in three respects.
The Holy Land was not won. The
advance of Islam was not permanently
checked. The schism between the
East and the West was not healed.
These were the primary objects of the
Crusades.” (Philip Shaff, History of the
Christian Church, V: 290)
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耶路撒冷 / 聖地 政治控制史
迦南人  以色列  亞述  巴比倫 
希臘  羅馬 （「巴勒斯坦」）
 拜占庭  伊斯蘭阿拉伯  伊斯蘭土
耳其（十字軍）  埃及  奧圖曼土耳
其  英國  以色列及巴勒斯坦人
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意圖與結果
 intended consequence vs. actual
consequence
 徒勞無功 (unfruitful)
 反效果 (counter-productive)
 Cf. early church and monasticism
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5. One Modern Catholic
view
“From the outset the Crusades were
defensive wars and checked the
advance of the Mohammedans who, for
two centuries, concentrated their
forces in a struggle against the
Christian settlements in Syria; hence
Europe is largely indebted to the
Crusaders for the maintenance of its
independence.”
The Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)
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Conclusion: “If, indeed, the Christian
civilization of Europe has become
universal culture, in the highest sense,
the glory redounds, in no small measure,
to the Crusades.” (Ibid.)
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6. A present day
historian’s view
“The long-term results of the first three
Crusades had little to do with their original
purpose. Politically and religiously they were
a failure. The Holy Land reverted as firmly as
ever to Muslim hands. The Crusades had,
however, been a safety valve for violenceprone Europeans. More importantly, they
stimulated Western trade with the East, as
Venetian, Pisan, and Genoan merchants
followed the Crusaders across Byzantium to
lucrative new markets.”
Kagan, Ozment, Turner, The Western Heritage, 10th
ed., 2010, p.209.
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On the 4th Crusade
“Although its capture embarrassed Pope
Innocent III, the papacy was soon
sharing the spoils, gleeful at the prospect
of extending Roman Christianity to the
East. A confidant of the pope became
patriarch of Constantinople and launched
a mission to win the Greeks and the Slavs
to the Roman Church…. This fifty-sevenyear occupation of Constantinople did
nothing to heal the political and religious
divisions between East and West.
Kagan, Ozment, Turner, The Western Heritage, 10th
ed., 2010, p.211.
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E. War and Peace
 “The Crusades also furnish the
perpetual reminder that….not by the
sword is the Church to win its way; but
by the message of peace, by appeals to
the heart and conscience, and by
teaching the ministries of prayer and
devout worship is she to accomplish
her mission.” (Philip Shaff, p.294)
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Is resorting to violence the only solution？
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St. Francis preaches to the Sultan and offers to walk thro’ the fire
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Lord, make me an instrument of thy peace.
Where there is hatred, let me sow love;
Where there is injury, pardon;
Where there is doubt, faith;
Where there is despair, hope;
Where there is darkness, light;
Where there is sadness, joy.
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Oh heavenly father, grant that I may not so much seek
To be consoled as to console,
To be understood as to understand,
To be loved as to love;
For it is in giving that we receive;
It is in pardoning that we are pardoned;
It is in dying (to self) that we are born to eternal life.
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慈愛的天父！讓我做禰的工具，去締造和平；
在有仇恨的地方，播送友愛；
在有冒犯的地方，給予寬恕；
在有分裂的地方，促成團結；
在有疑慮的地方，激發信心；
在有錯謬的地方，宣揚真理；
在有失望的地方，喚起希望；
在有憂傷的地方，散佈喜樂；
在有黑暗的地方，放射光明。
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神聖的導師！
願我不求他人的安慰，只求安慰他人；
不求他人的諒解，只求諒解他人；
不求他人的愛護，只求愛護他人；
因為在施予中，我們有所收穫；
在寬恕時，我們得到寬恕；
在死亡時，我們生於永恆。
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make me a channel of
your peace (YouTube)
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Tutorial Discussion
1. Discuss Bernard of Clairvaux, “A Holy
War,” (Letter 391) ; (Reading 2)
（He is considered a saint of his time）
 The word “crusade” was a later
convention. How does Bernard
describe the military intervention he
advocates?
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2. Discuss Thomas F. Madden, “The Real
History of the Crusades” (reading 3)
(He is a present day American Catholic historian
who has published several books on the Crusades)
 What is the nature of the Crusades? (pp.2-4)
 What crimes were committed by the
Crusaders? (p.4)
 What is the historical merit of the Crusades?
(pp.6-7)
 Do you agree with him?
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Some Catholic views:
1. The Catholic Encyclopedia:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04543c.ht
m
2. The New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed.
3. Thomas F. Madden, A Concise History of
the Crusades (1999)
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Questions for further
reflection
 How could this first conflict of
civilizations be managed better?
 What lessons can we learn today from
this conflict?
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