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The Americas: Pre-Columbian Empires to Colonies I. The Empires of the Americas a. The First Americans i. Scientists believe that during the Ice Age, 25,000 years ago, Asian hunters crossed a land bridge linking Asia and Alaska (where the Bering Strait is now). ii. From Alaska, these people spread south and eventually settled across North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean Islands. Separated by geography, they developed their own languages and cultures. iii. Native Americans had their own Neolithic Revolution and learned to grow maize (corn) and other crops (beans, squash…). Complex civilizations developed in Mesoamerica – called pre-Columbian because they were before Columbus arrived. iv. Civs did NOT emerge just in river valleys. Mesoamericans living in the rain forest learned how to grow corn, which allowed the development of permanent civs and large cities. b. The Maya (1500 BC – 1546 AD) i. Earliest Mesoamerican civs included the Olmecs and Toltecs. They provided a foundation for later civs. ii. Maya developed in Guatemala 3000 years ago. Each city had its own chief, considered half-man/half-god. Most Maya were peasant farmers. iii. Craftsmen made luxuries for nobles. Hereditary nobility performed sacred ceremonies and assisted rulers. Astronomers measured movement of sun, moon, and Venus to predict future. iv. Frequent wars. Human sacrifice practiced. Ball game played (hit a rubber ball through rings); may have had religious significance; losing team sometimes sacrificed to gods. v. Around 9th century: crisis. Unknown if a food shortage, epidemic, or war brought end to Classical period. Maya migrated northward to Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico and built new city-states, including Chichen Itza. Constant warfare from 13th-16th centuries, plus pressures from other peoples, led to final decline. c. The Aztecs (1200-1521) i. Valley of Mexico is an excellent location for crops. Aztecs (Mexica), an alliance of local peoples, settled there. ii. Around 1300, settled on island in Lake Texcoco and built Tenochtitlan. Learned to grow corn from neighbors and built “floating gardens” (chinampas) in marshy areas. Made observations of sky and aligned temples with movements of sun and moon. Engaged in frequent wars to conquer other peoples; conflicts continued until arrival of Europeans. iii. Aztecs developed a complex social organization. At top, allpowerful emperor. Next, nobles. Most people were commoners, working as farmers, fishermen, craftsmen, or warriors. @ bottom, slaves. iv. Worshipped many gods. Most important was Sun God. With observations of sky, made accurate stone calendars. Believed Sun God needed human blood to continue daily movements across sky, so practiced human sacrifice. Captured warriors and volunteers were sacrificed to keep the universe in motion. d. The Inca Empire (1200-1535) i. Advanced cultures developed along the Pacific Coast and in the Andes Mountains of South America. Andean peoples terraced mountains, grew potatoes and other root crops, and kept llamas and alpacas for wool, meat, and to carry goods. ii. Inca built on these earlier achievements. Around 1400, began extending their rule across the Andes, eventually ruling an empire including present-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, & Chile. They built over 10,000 miles of stone roads to unify the empire. Food was preserved and kept in storehouses along roads. Messengers ran the roads – no wheeled vehicles. No writing; used the quipu – bundles of knotted, colored ropes – for counting, record-keeping, and messages. iii. Built vast stone buildings in mountains. No cement, but stones fitted perfectly. Machu Picchu an example. e. Art i. Maya, Aztec, and Inca artists made stone sculptures to decorate temples and palaces. ii. Ceramic bowls carved with human & animal forms were used for ceremonies, possibly to ward off demonic spirits in afterlife. f. Gender Roles in Mesoamerica i. Gender roles established @ birth; boys received a machete (knife) from fathers; girls received a stone metate (for grinding maize) from mothers. Boys taught crafts, girls cooking. ii. Women held various roles; harvesting grain, preparing food, caring for animals, raising children. Processing corn (maize) important; it was boiled and ground into dough. Some women held outside jobs in the market, as artisans, or as priestesses. II. The Columbian Exchange a. Motivations for exploration i. Writings of Marco Polo increased interest in trade with Asia. Goods were carried overland to Constantinople and then shipped across the Mediterranean by Italians. Trade declined after the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, so people looked for an all-water route. ii. Renaissance spirit of inquiry encouraged exploration. Technological innovations adopted to improve navigation, including Chinese compass and Arabian triangular lateen sail. b. The Age of Discovery i. Spain and Portugal are coastal countries at the western end of Europe. Both wanted a share of trade with Asia and had the resources necessary to finance exploration. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal financed development of a new, lighter ship (the caravel) and sponsored expeditions along the coast of Africa. ii. Spain’s leaders, Ferdinand and Isabella, had just finished the Reconquista (reconquest) of Spain’s Muslim areas, reunifying the country as Christian in 1492. They expelled the Jewish community at the same time. They hoped to spread Christianity and glorify their country through overseas exploration. c. The Voyages of Columbus i. Christopher Columbus (1461-1506), from Genoa in Italy, believed he could reach Asia by sailing west. After years of asking, he persuaded the rulers of Spain (Ferdinand & Isabella) to provide 3 ships. Columbus thought the world was smaller than it really is, and his men almost mutinied after 2 months on the voyage. They landed in the Americas instead of the East Indies (so now the Caribbean islands are called the West Indies); this “discovery” provided new sources of wealth and raw materials that forever altered Europe’s economy. ii. The Columbian Exchange: an exchange of products and ideas between the Old World and New World. European diets were improved with American tomatoes, corn, potatoes, peppers, squash, pineapples, and chocolate, and animals including turkeys. Tobacco and syphilis were also brought to Europe (those were bad). From Europe to Americas: wheat, sugar, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, chickens, grains such as wheat – and diseases like smallpox. d. Later Explorers i. Vasco da Gama (1460-1524): Portuguese explorer: 1497, found an all-water route from Europe to India by sailing around Africa. Europeans could now get Asian goods w/out using overland routes. ii. Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521): Portuguese but worked for Spain. Led the first expedition to circumnavigate (circle) the world. Sailed around South America and across Pacific; showed how huge the Pacific is. Magellan died on the voyage. iii. Other Explorers 1. England claimed lands in North America based on John Cabot’s voyages. 2. France sent Jacques Cartier, Samuel Champlain, and Robert de la Salle to explore the St. Lawrence River, Great Lakes, and Mississippi River. 3. Holland: The Dutch sent Henry Hudson to find a shortcut from Europe to the Far East – he explored Hudson Bay in Canada and the Hudson River in a failed attempt to find the “Northwest Passage.” III. The Conquest of the Americas a. Conquistadors (conquerors) and priests arrived soon after the first explorers. They conquered native peoples, seized gold & silver, obtained natural resources, and converted natives to Christianity. b. Conquest of Mexico i. Spanish quickly conquered Caribbean islands. Small numbers of Spanish soldiers used horses & firearms and acted with local allies to overcome large numbers of Native Americans. ii. 1519: Hernando Cortes sailed from Cuba to Mexico in search of gold & silver. Met Aztec emperor Montezuma. Aztecs at first thought the Spanish were gods & gave them gifts. Later, Cortes left Tenochtitlan and made alliances with the Aztecs’ enemies. iii. 1521: Cortes attacked Tenochtitlan with a few hundred Spaniards and thousands of Native American warriors. Factors in his success: Aztecs fought with clubs, spears, and bows; Spanish had guns, steel swords, shields, dogs, horses, and cannon. Spanish had a large force of warrior from native allies who hated the Aztec. Finally, Aztec worn down by a devastating smallpox outbreak. Cortes victorious. c. Conquest of Peru i. 1530: Francisco Pizarro left Panama to conquer the Inca of Peru. Arrived right after a civil war and a smallpox epidemic weakened the Inca. Despite being a larger force, the Inca could not resist the European technological advantage. Pizarro tricked the Inca emperor with an offer of friendship, then ambushed and murdered him. Conquered the capital of Cuzco by 1533. ii. Spanish treated conquered Indians harshly, forcing them to convert to Christianity and work as slaves. d. Colonial Latin America i. Spanish conquest of Caribbean, Mexico, & Peru brought changes. Spanish did not find cities of gold, but forced their dominance, religion, & culture on conquered tribes. Region became Latin America – a fusion of European & Native American cultures. ii. Colonial Government: Spain ruled an empire much bigger than its home country. Special royal governors (viceroys) ruled in the king’s name. Officials born in Spain held the most important positions in government and the military. American gold & silver made Spain Europe’s strongest 16th century power. iii. Colonial Society 1. Conquered lands were often divided among soldiers, who used Native Americans (Amerindians) as slaves to till land and work mines – forced labor system called encomienda system. 2. Church leaders shared in political power. Priests tried to convert Amerindians and prevent enslavement. Jesuits built schools & hospitals and taught agricultural skills, but were expelled from Latin America in 1767. 3. New colonial order: a. Top: Peninsulares, noble officials & landowners born in Spain. Head & heart of colonial society. b. Second: Creoles: Spanish background/ethnicity but born in New World. c. Third: Mestizos: Mixed Spanish/Native American. d. Bottom: Native Americans, who did hardest work. 4. Native American populations declined because they had no immunity to European diseases like measles, smallpox, & typhus. Because of decline in population from disease and overwork, Spanish landowners turned to importing African slaves as a labor force. IV. Other European Colonial Empires a. New France i. Canada and along Great Lakes/Mississippi River. Less populous than Spanish or English colonies. A handful of towns and trading outposts, plus missionaries. ii. By end of 17th century, controlled almost ¾ of North America. French explorers trapped/traded fur animals, especially beaver (for hats). b. New Netherland i. Based on Hudson’s exploration, the Dutch claimed the region around New York. Set up a fur-trading colony called New Netherland. Control given to merchants of the Dutch West India Company. ii. 1624, thirty families settled at Fort Orange (now Albany). More settlers arrived in 1625 and established a fort on Manhattan Island named New Amsterdam – good harbor made it a leading trade center. c. English Colonies i. 1st permanent English colony: Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. First settlers men looking for gold – became a profitable tobacco center. ii. 2nd colony: Pilgrims at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620. Puritans landed at Massachusetts Bay in 1630. Came for religious freedom (and as long as you worshiped just like them you could come too). iii. Eventually, 13 English colonies along Atlantic coast of America, from Georgia to Massachusetts. V. The Atlantic Slave Trade a. Finding enough workers to survive harsh conditions was a problem, especially in the Caribbean. Solution: the rise of the African slave trade. Expanded the institution of slavery to a scale unparalleled in human history. b. Enslaved people were usually captured by Africans in raids on neighboring tribes/villages. They were brought to the west coast of Africa, imprisoned in fortified castles, and traded to European and American traders in exchange for guns and other goods. c. An estimated 15 million African men and women (mostly men, at first) were taken from 1500-1800. More than 11 million went to Spanish colonies. Many died on the “Middle Passage” (voyage across Atlantic) due to horrible conditions on board ships. Once they arrived, many worked long hours in sugar fields of Caribbean and Brazil, or tobacco or cotton plantations in North America. VI. Chapter Study Cards