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▼ The Gui River,
The story of the world begins with geography—the study of the earth in all of its
variety. Geography describes the earth’s
land, water, and plant and animal life. It is
the study of places and the complex
relationships between people and their
environment.
The resources in this handbook will help
you get the most out of your textbook—and
provide you with skills you will use for the
rest of your life.
Guilin, China
▼
The Amazon, Brazil
Geography Handbook
▼
Saharan sand
dunes, Morocco
Geography Handbook
91 91
(t)Dallas and John Heaton/CORBIS, (c)Jamie Harron/CORBIS, (b)Owen Franken/CORBIS
Places and Regions
Six Essential Elements
Recently, geographers have begun to look at
geography in a different way. They do this to
understand how our large world is connected.
They break down the study of geography into
Six Essential Elements. You should think of
these elements as categories into which to sort
information you learn about the world’s geography.
Being aware of these elements will help you
sort out what you are learning. Examples of
each of the Essential Elements detailed in maps
throughout Discovering Our Past are explained
here.
Place has a special meaning in geography. It means
more than where a place is.
It also describes what a place
is like. It might describe
physical characteristics such
as landforms, climate, and
plant or animal life. Or it
might describe human
characteristics, including
language and way of life.
To help organize their
study, geographers often
group places into regions.
Regions are united by
one or more common
characteristics.
The World in Spatial Terms
Geographers first take a look at where
a place is located. Location serves as a
starting point by asking “Where is it?”
Knowing the loca-tion of places helps
you develop an awareness of the world
around you.
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Getty Images
Geography Handbook
Physical Systems
When studying places
and regions, geographers
analyze how physical
systems—such as hurricanes, volcanoes, and
glaciers—shape the
earth’s surface. They also
look at communities of
plants and animals that
depend upon one another
and their surroundings
for survival.
Geography Handbook
Human Systems
Geographers also examine
human systems, or how
people have shaped our
world. They look at political
boundary lines and why
people settle in certain
places. A key theme is the
continual movement of people, ideas, and goods.
Environment and Society
What is the relationship
between people and their
natural surroundings? This
is what the theme of
human/environment interaction investigates. It also
shows how people affect the
environment.
The Uses of Geography
Knowledge of geography
helps us understand people,
places, and environments
over time. Knowing how to
use the tools of geography
prepares you for our modern society.
Five Themes
Some geographers study
geography through five
themes. The Five Themes of
Geography are (1) location,
(2) place, (3) human/environment interaction, (4) movement, and (5) regions. You
will see these highlighted
throughout Discovering Our
Past.
Geography Handbook
93
Getty Images
Hemispheres
To locate place on the earth, geographers use
a system of imaginary lines that crisscross the
globe. One of these lines, the Equator, circles
the middle of the earth like a belt. It divides
the earth into “half spheres,” or hemispheres.
Everything north of the Equator is in the
Northern Hemisphere. Everything south of
the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere.
Another imaginary line runs from north to
south. It helps divide the earth into half
spheres in the other direction. Find this line—
called the Prime Meridian on a globe.
Everything east of the Prime Meridian for
180 degrees is in the Eastern Hemisphere.
Everything west of the Prime Meridian is in
the Western Hemisphere.
Hemispheres
Northern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
Indian
Ocean
Asia
Australia
Africa
Africa
Europe
North Pole
South Pole
Atlantic
Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
Antarctica
Atlantic
Ocean
South
America
North
America
Western Hemisphere
Pacific
Ocean
Eastern Hemisphere
Europe
North
America
Asia
Atlantic
Ocean
Africa
Pacific
Ocean
South
America
Indian
Ocean
Australia
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Geography Handbook
ines on globes and maps provide information
that can help you easily locate places on the
earth. These lines—called latitude and
longitude—cross one another, forming a pattern
called a grid system.
L
Latitude
Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the
earth parallel to the Equator and measure
the distance north or south of the Equator
in degrees. The Equator is at 0° latitude,
while the North Pole lies at latitude 90°N
(north).
Longitude
Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances east
or west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitude
and is called the Prime Meridian by geographers.
The Prime Meridian runs through the Royal
Observatory in Greenwich, England.
Absolute Location
The grid system formed by lines of latitude and
longitude makes it possible to find the absolute
location of a place. Only one place can be found
at the point where a specific line of latitude
crosses a specific line of longitude. By using
degrees (°) and minutes (‘) (points between
degrees), people can pinpoint the precise spot
where one line of latitude crosses one line of
longitude—an absolute location.
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95
he most accurate way to depict the earth is as a
globe, a round scale model of the earth. A globe
gives a true picture of the continents’ relative sizes
and the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.
Globes accurately represent distance and direction.
A map is a flat drawing of all or part of the
earth’s surface. Unlike globes, maps can show small
areas in great detail. Maps can also display political
boundaries, population densities, or even voting
returns.
T
Mapmaking With Technology
Technology has changed the way maps are
made. Most cartographers use software programs called geographic information systems
(GIS). This software layers map data from
satellite images, printed text, and statistics. A
Global Positioning System (GPS) helps consumers and mapmakers locate places based on
coordinates broadcast by satellites.
From Globes to Maps
Great Circle Route
Map A
120°E
S
60°N
Great Circle Distance
5,450 mi. (8,769 km)
True Direction Distance
5,795 mi. (9,324 km)
30°N
0°
PACI F I C
OCEAN
30°S
0 mi.
3,000
0 km
3,000
Mercator projection
0°
Map B
60°E
60
°N
60°W
W
Great Circle Route
Tokyo
0 mi.
PACI F I C
True OCEAN ute
D ir e cti o n R o
3,000
0 km
3,000
Polar Gnomonic projection
Geography Handbook
E
N
North Pole
120°E
96
Los
Angeles
40
°N
Mapmakers have solved some problems of
going from a globe to a map. A great circle is
an imaginary line that follows the curve of the
earth. Traveling along a great circle is called
following a great circle route. Airplane pilots
use great circle routes because they are the
shortest routes.
The idea of a great circle shows one important difference between a globe and a map.
Because a globe is round, it accurately shows
great circles. On a flat map, however, the great
circle route between two points may not appear
to be the shortest distance. Compare Maps A
and B on the right.
120°W
E
W
Tokyo
Great Circle Routes
N
180°
180°
S
Maps, however, do have their limitations. As
you can imagine, drawing a round object on a
flat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, or
mapmakers, use mathematical formulas to
transfer information from the round globe to
a flat map. However, when the curves of a
globe become straight lines on a map, the
size, shape, distance, or area can change or
be distorted.
Los
Angeles
120°W
120°W 60°W
60°N
EQUATOR
0°
N
TROPIC OF CAPRICOR
30°S
C LE
60°S ANTARCTIC CIR
ARCTIC CIRCLE
0°
60°E
120°E
CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
60°N
30°N
A R C T IC
30°N
▼
Goode’s Interrupted
Equal-Area Projection
Winkel Tripel Projection
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
magine taking the whole peel from an orange and
trying to flatten it on a table. You would either
have to cut it or stretch parts of it. Mapmakers face
a similar problem in showing the surface of the
round earth on a flat map. When the earth’s surface
is flattened, big gaps open up. To fill in the gaps,
mapmakers stretch parts of the earth. They choose
to show either the correct shapes of places or their
correct sizes. It is impossible to show both. As a
result, mapmakers have developed different projections, or ways of showing the earth on a flat piece
of paper.
I
The Winkel Tripel projection gives a good overall view of
the continents’ shapes and sizes. Land areas in a Winkel Tripel
projection are not as distorted near the Poles as they are in the
Robinson projection.
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
0°
Mercator Projection
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
90°E
60°S
120°E
150°E
180°
150°W
120°W
90°W
60°W
30°W
Take a second look at your peeled, flattened orange. You might
have something that looks like a map based on Goode’s
Interrupted Equal-Area projection. A map with this projection
shows continents close to their true shapes and sizes. This projection is helpful to compare land areas among continents.
60°E
ARCTIC CIRCLE
0°
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
120°W
ARCTIC CIRCLE
60°W
0°
60°E
120°E
30°S
60°N
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
60°S
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
60°S
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
TROPIC OF CANCER
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
▼
A map using the Robinson projection has minor distortions. Land
on the western and eastern sides of the Robinson map appears
much as it does on a globe. The areas most distorted on this
projection are near the North and South Poles.
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
▼
Robinson Projection
0°
30°E
60°N
30°N
30°N
0°
ANTARCTIC
CIRCLE
The Mercator projection shows true direction and land shapes
fairly accurately, but not size or distance. Areas that are located
far from the Equator are quite distorted on this projection. Alaska,
for example, appears much larger on a Mercator map than it does
on a globe.
Geography Handbook
97
▼
Map Key An important first step in reading a map is to note the map
key. The map key explains the lines, symbols, and colors used on a
map. For example, the map on this page shows the various climate
regions of the United States and the different colors representing them.
Cities are usually symbolized by a solid circle (•) and capitals by a ().
On this map, you can see the capital of Texas and the cities of
Los Angeles, Seattle, New Orleans, and Chicago.
Climate Regions of the United States
Desert
Highland
Humid continental
Humid subtropical
Marine
Scale A measuring line, often called a
scale bar, helps you figure distance on
the map. The map scale tells you what
distance on the earth is represented by
the measurement on the scale bar.
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Geography Handbook
Mediterranean
Steppe
Subarctic
Tropical
Tundra
Compass Rose A map has a symbol
that tells you where the cardinal
directions—north, south, east, and
west—are positioned.
Spain: Political
General Purpose Maps
10°W
Maps are amazingly useful tools.
Geographers use many different types of
maps. Maps that show a wide range of
general information about an area are
called general purpose maps. Two of the
most common general purpose maps are
physical and political maps.
FRANCE
R.
Do u r o R .
PORTUGAL
N
Barcelona
S
S P A I N
Valencia
Balearic
Islands
uivir R.
dalq
ua
G
Seville
0 mi.
200
0 km
200
Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area projection
Sri Lanka: Physical
Point Pedro
Jaffna
Gulf of
Mannar
Bay
of
Bengal
Kattankudi
M´alaga
d
Me
ATLANTIC
O CE A N
Chilaw
E
W
40°N
Physical maps call out landforms and
water features. The physical map of Sri
Lanka (below) shows rivers and mountains. The colors used on physical maps
include brown or green for land and blue
for water. In addition, physical maps may
use colors to show elevation—the height
of an area above sea level. A key explains
what each color and symbol stands for.
SRI LANKA
Zaragoza
Madrid
Tagus R.
8°S
ANDORRA
Eb
ro
Physical Maps
Trincomalee
0°
Bay o f Biscay
ite
rr
e
an
an
Se a
GIBRALTAR
U.K.
S t r a i t o f G ib r a l t a r
AFRICA
Political Maps
Political maps show the names
and boundaries of countries, the
location of cities and other humanmade features of a place, and often
identify major physical features.
The political map of Spain (above),
for example, shows the boundaries
between Spain and other countries.
It also shows cities and rivers
within Spain and bodies of water
surrounding Spain.
Matale
Pidurutalagala
8,281 ft.
(2,524 m)
Colombo
N
W
INDIAN
OCEAN
E
Matara
S
0 mi.
0 km
80°E
100
100
Elevations
Feet
Meters
3,280
1,000
1,640
500
650
200
380
100
0
0
Mountain peak
National capital
Major city
Geography Handbook
99
Special Purpose Maps
Egypt:
Population Density
Mediterranean
Alexandria
Se a
Suez
Cairo Canal
30°N
El Giza
N
W
EGYPT
E
S
le
Re
Ni
R.
300
Se
0 mi.
d
0 km
300
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area
projection
a
Some maps are made to present specific
kinds of information. These are called
thematic or special purpose maps. They
usually show themes or patterns, often
emphasizing one subject or theme. Special
purpose maps may present climate, natural
resources, and population density. They may
also display historical information, such as
battles or territorial changes. The map’s title
tells what kind of special information it
shows. Colors and symbols in the map key
are especially important on these types of
maps. Special purpose maps are often found
in books of maps called atlases.
One type of special purpose map uses colors
to show population density, or the average
number of people living in a square mile or
square kilometer. As with other maps, it is
important to first read the title and the key.
The population density map of Egypt shows
that the Nile River valley and delta are very
densely populated.
TROPIC OF CANCER
Persons
sq. mi.
Uninhabited
Under 2
2–60
60–125
125–250
Over 250
Some other special purpose maps such as the
one of China’s Defenses are not presented in
color. They are printed in black and white. This
is an example of a map you might find on a
standardized test or in a newspaper.
per
sq. km
Uninhabited
20°N
Under 1
Boundary claimed
by Sudan
1–25
25–50
50–100
Over 100
Cities
City with more than
5,000,000 people
City with 1,000,000 to
5,000,000 people
30°E
China’s Defenses
RUSSIA
MONGOLIA
G re
a t W a ll o f C
hina
Yellow
Sea
East
China
Sea
CHINA
NEPAL
Himalaya
Gobi
Taklimakan
Manchurian
Altay Mountains Plain
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Geography Handbook
South
China
Sea
Bar, Line, and
Circle Graphs
Comparing World Languages
Chinese (Mandarin) 874
Languages
A graph is a way of summarizing
Hindi 366
and presenting information visually.
English 341
Each part of a graph gives useful
Spanish 322
information. First read the graph’s
title to find out its subject. Then read
Bengali 207
the labels along the graph’s axes—
Portuguese 176
the vertical line along the left side of
Russian 167
the graph and the horizontal line
Japanese 125
along the bottom. One axis will tell
you what is being measured. The
German 100
other axis tells what units of measKorean 78
urement are being used.
Number of Native Speakers (in millions)
Graphs that use bars or wide lines
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
to compare data visually are called
Bar graph
bar graphs. Look carefully at the
bar graph (right) that compares world lanA line graph is a useful tool for showing
guages. The vertical axis lists the languages.
changes
over a period of time. The amounts
The horizontal axis gives speakers of the lanbeing
measured
are plotted on the grid above
guage in millions. By comparing the lengths of
each year and then are connected by a line.
the bars, you can quickly tell which language
Line graphs sometimes have two or more lines
is spoken by the most people. Bar graphs are
plotted on them. The line graph (below) shows
especially useful for comparing quantities.
that the number of farms in the United States
has decreased since 1940.
Number of farms (in millions)
U.S. Farms, 1940–2000
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1940
1950
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Line graph
Geography Handbook
101
Using Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams
You can use circle graphs when you
want to show how the whole of something is divided into its parts. Because of
their shape, circle graphs are often called
pie graphs. Each “slice” represents a part or
percentage of the whole “pie.” On the circle
graph at right, the whole circle (100 percent)
represents the world’s population in 2002.
The slices show how this population is
divided among some of the most heavily
populated areas of the world.
World Population*
Latin America 9%
North America 5%
Europe
12%
Charts
Charts present facts and numbers in an
organized way. They arrange data, especially numbers, in rows and columns for
easy reference. To interpret the chart, first
read the title. Look at the chart on page 91.
It tells you what information the chart contains. Next, read the labels at the top of
each column and on the left side of the
chart. They explain what the numbers or
data on the chart are measuring.
Africa 13%
Asia 61%
Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2003.
Circle graph
Production figures for five
major auto-producing countries
Major AutomobileProducing Countries, 2001
Japan
Germany
United
States
France
South
Korea
= 1,000,000 passenger cars
Pictograph
102
Geography Handbook
*Excluding Australia
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
Pictographs
Like bar and circle graphs,
pictographs are good for making comparisons. Pictographs
use rows of small pictures or
symbols, with each picture
or symbol representing an
amount. Look at the pictograph (left) showing the number of automobiles produced
in the world’s five major automobile-producing countries.
The key tells you that one car
symbol stands for 1 million
automobiles. The total number
of car symbols in a row adds
up to the auto production in
each selected country.
Geography Handbook
Climographs
Average monthly temperature
Climograph: Moscow, Russia
°F
°C
in. mm
100 37.8
20 508
90 32.2
18 457.2
80 26.7
16 406.4
70 21.1
14 355.6
60 15.6
12 304.8
50 10.0
10 254
4.4
8
203.2
30 –1.1
6
152.4
20 –6.7
4
101.6
10 –12.2
2
50.8
0 –17.8
0
0
40
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Source: World Weather Guide.
Climograph
Diagrams
Diagrams are drawings that show steps in
a process, point out the parts of an object, or
explain how something works. An elevation
profile is a type of diagram that can be helpful
when comparing the elevations—or height—of
an area. It shows an exaggerated side view of
the land as if it were sliced and you were viewing it from the side. The elevation profile of
Africa (below) clearly shows sea level, low
areas, and mountains.
Africa: Elevation Profile
Mt. Kenya
17,058 ft.
(5,199 m)
16,404 ft.
0 mi.
13,123 ft.
0 km
300
300
5,000 m
Margherita Peak
16,763 ft.
(5,109 m)
4,000 m
Lake
Victoria
9,842 ft.
3,000 m
6,562 ft.
Indian
Ocean 2,000 m
Atlantic Ocean
3,281 ft.
Congo River
1,000 m
Sea level
0˚ latitude (Equator)
Diagram
Geography Handbook
103
Average monthly precipitation
A climograph, or climate
graph, combines a line graph
and a bar graph. It gives an
overall picture of the long-term
weather patterns in a specific place.
Climographs include several kinds
of information. The green vertical
bars on the climograph of Moscow
(right) show average monthly
amounts of precipitation (rain,
snow, and sleet). These bars are
measured against the axis on the
right side of the graph. The red line
plotted above the bars represents
changes in the average monthly
temperature. You measure this line
against the axis on the left side.
Strait
Volcano
Mountain peak
Sound
Island
Valley
Cape
Ocean
Cliff
Isthmus
As you read about world history,
you will encounter the terms
listed below. Many of the terms
are pictured in the diagram.
Bay
Harbor
Gulf
Delta
Peninsula
st
Seacoa
absolute location exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches;
area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevation
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline, generally smaller than a gulf
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls
cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses
that lie close to each other; deep part of a river or other
waterway
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth
cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a
place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement
pattern
delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by a river and deposited at its mouth
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems
downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from
its source to its mouth
elevation height of land above sea level
Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway
between the North and South Poles; used as the starting
point to measure degrees of north and south latitude
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Geography Handbook
glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice
gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally larger and more deeply indented than a bay
harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can
anchor safely
highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, or
plateau
hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit;
generally smaller than a mountain
island land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded by water
isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land
areas
lake a sizable inland body of water
latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in
degrees
longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured in degrees
lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation
map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface
meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from
the North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure
degrees of longitude
mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller
than a plateau
Geography Handbook
Mountain range
Glacier
Source of
river
Channel
Highland
Lake
Plateau
Hills
Canyon
Mouth of river
River
Desert
Upstream
Downstream
Plain
Lowland
Basin
Tributary
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet
[305 m] or more) from surrounding land; generally larger
and more rugged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountain
mountain range a series of connected mountains
mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a
larger body of water
ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround
the continents
ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that
moves in a definite direction through an ocean
parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the
earth north or south of the Equator; used to measure
degrees of latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded
on three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,
such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or
resource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often
covered with grasses
plateau area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about
300–3,000 feet (91–914 m) high
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the North
Pole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England; starting point for measuring degrees of east and west longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of land
river large natural stream of water that runs through the land
sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded by
land
seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean
sea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean
or sea
sound body of water between a coastline and one or more
islands off the coast
source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins,
often in highlands
strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of
water
tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river
or stream; a branch of the river
upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the
source of a river or stream
valley area of low land between hills or mountains
volcano mountain created as liquid rock or ash erupts from
inside the earth
Geography Handbook
105