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A Catalogue of romatic M & edicinal Plants The project is co-funded by the European Union (ERDF) and National Funds of Greece & Italy through the European Territorial Cooperation Programme. Contributors Dr. GREGORIS IATROU, Professor, Scientific Responsible UNIVERSITY OF PATRAS DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY Dr. FOTINI LAMARI, Assoc. Professor UNIVERSITY OF PATRAS DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACY LABORATORY OF PHARMAKOGNOSY AND NATURAL PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY Dr GIORGOS DIMITRELLOS UNIVERSITY OF PATRAS DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY MSc. MARIA TSAKIRI UNIVERSITY OF PATRAS DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY Introduction F lora of Greece is one of the richest in Europe, compared to its extent. 6.600 species and subspecies (taxa) occur in Greece, including 1462 endemic taxa (22,2%). More than 1/6 of the total number of native plants are aromatic and medicinal, while, more than 2.000 appear with commercial interest. Aromatic and medicinal plants classified into about fifty families (Abietaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, Labiatae, Rutaceae, Iridaceae, Rosaceae etc.). The term “aromatic plants” refers to all the plants which produce an essence due to their containing volatile compounds. “Medicinal plants” are those plants which have, at least, a part that produces chemical compounds with curative properties for human. There is not a clear distinction between several aromatic and medicinal plants, because most of them have both properties. They are used for hundreds of years, in every place in the world, in various cultures, for consumption and to treat various health problems. They are widespread throughout Mediterranean region due to their dominance as floral elements. The use of medicinal plants and their preparations is the oldest form of medicine, which has been discovered by human for pain relief. Moreover, in the past, botany and medicine were one and the same in practice. For many centuries the therapeutic arsenal included only herbal medicines. The first medical doctors were botanists. Classical Greeks and Ancient Greek physicians wrote various writings for medicinal properties and the ways of using plants based on folk tradition of their time. Their knowledge prevailed for many centuries and constituted the base for the development of folk medicine throughout West World. Aristotle (384-322 B.C) and his scholar, Theophrastus (371-285 B.C.), place the early scientific basis of Botany. Aristotle’s work «About plants», has not been rescued, but, the books of Theophrastus, “The History of Plants” and “The Causes of Plants”, are considered until now as classical biological works and fairly Theophrastus is considered as the “father of Botany”. Hippocrates (460- 377 B.C.) and Dioscorides (40-90 A.D.), were those who created the basis of modern medicine, by recognizing and using various plants for recurring purposes. Dioscorides’ works «Περί Ύλης Ιατρικής» (De Materia medika), for centuries, was regarded as the most important advisory text for medicinal purposes. 55 There is a plenty of myths, legends and folkways, that refer to curative properties of plants. In Ancient Greek Mythology and Literature, there are several mentions of plants in myths, gods, demigods and mythical creatures. Some of them explain the common names of several plants and other describe their use for remedy. A lot of prescriptions using plants, based on folk tradition, have been rescued. Often, they are called as elixir of life providing magical properties. The use of herbs and also, homemade ointments for compress and poultices, decoctions etc. made from several parts of the each plant, such as flowers, barks, leaves, roots, underground shoots and fruits, substitute for centuries the scientific medicine. Often, according to folk medicine, all the expectations for remedy based on them. Nowadays, global industry of food, beverages (flavor addition and preservation), cosmetics, perfumes and medicines, use more and more plants to compound natural product. Plants are used either as dried or fresh herbal material, or as an extracted essential oil. At modern western world, herbalism or herbal medicine again comes to forefront as a reliable medical method, as an inhalation, compress, embrocation, massage, decoction, infusion, poultice, dilution, extract, etc. The demand for aromatic and medicinal plants, due to their properties, at local and national level, is highly increased, and native populations occur almost throughout Greece. Several Greek and foreign companies move in the direction of utilization of aromatic and medicinal plants, in parallel with the development of industry research, having as a subject the prosperity of Greek native medicinal plants. The need of reinforcement of cultivation of those plants is imperative for companies and professionals in order to improve their competitiveness in the international market and limit the uncontrolled collection of wild plants for environmental protection purposes. The cultivation of aromatic and medicinal herbs and trees can effectively help the mountainous and hilly areas, characterized by low productivity or low exploitation levels, to attract new farmers for new and innovative agricultural production and to enhance the primary sector of the national economy. Undoubtedly, native aromatic and medicinal plants of Greek flora, due to their inclusion in Greek ecosystem, they outbalance in contrast to other cultivations which flourish in similar soils. As a result, there aren’t any cultivation difficulties and the cultivation and marketing of their products is regarded as a successful choice. 6 The «Re.herb» project includes : a) recording and documentation of aromatic and medicinal plants indigenous and cultivated in Western Greece, Epirus, Ionian islands in Greece and the Province of Taranto in Italy, b) detailed analysis of current situation with regard to existing production, pricing, distribution and future opportunities, c) classification and structured presentation of the documentation regarding both product characteristics and characteristics concerning the local culture and local tourism, and finally d) development of the innovative, multidimensional platform for the utilization of e-market place and the networking activities in both areas of intervention aiming at increasing the number of SME’s participating in network activities and enhancing cooperation and joint actions for internationalisation. The core object of «Re.herb» lies on effectively communicating the beneficial medicinal and cosmetic properties of specific plants, at a national and transboundary level, aiming firstly at informing the population under a more integrated and comprehensive way and secondly, at strengthening the demand (both local and foreign) for such plants or for products based on them. It is considerable that the area of study has a rich floristic diversity. During the implementation of «Re.herb» project, a cataloguing was created with the total number of aromatic and medicinal plants that occur in the study area. It was not possible to study the total number of plants during the duration of this project. For this reason, there were selected plants that already have commercial interest, or plants that could be used in this direction due to their medicinal properties. Taxa, that have been studied, are displayed on the website which has been created for «Re.herb» project (www.reherb.eu), including the scientific and common name of each one, systematic description, geographical distribution, included subspecies, habitat, medicinal properties and phytochemical composition, extent of local cultivation, use in local markets, traditional uses, possible danger of use, and finally, representative photographic material. For practical and mainly financial reasons, in this book, are selectively presented the most important taxa of the native (82 taxa) and the cultivated (19 taxa) of the total number, from the three study areas, with their scientific and common name, systematic description, geographical distribution, medicinal properties and phytochemical composition. 7 CONTENTS Native Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit. Čelak ...................................................................... Anchusa officinalis L. subsp. οfficinalis ................................................................... Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. rubriflora (DC.) Arcang. ................................................ Arbutus unedo L. .................................................................................................... Arctium lappa L. ..................................................................................................... Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L. ............................................................................. Asparagus acutifolius L. ......................................................................................... Asphodelus ramosus L. .......................................................................................... Berberis cretica L. ................................................................................................... Blitum bonus-henricus (L.) Rchb. ........................................................................... Borago officinalis L. ................................................................................................ Brassica nigra (L.) W. D. J. Koch in Röhl. .................................................................. Bryonia dioica Jacq. ................................................................................................ Calendula officinalis L. ........................................................................................... Capparis spinosa L. ................................................................................................. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. ........................................................................ Celtis australis L. .................................................................................................... Centaurea cyanus L. ............................................................................................... Ceratonia siliqua L. ................................................................................................. Cichorium intybus L. .............................................................................................. Cistus creticus subsp. creticus Greuter and Burdet .................................................. Colchicum bivonae Guss. ........................................................................................ Cornus mas L. ......................................................................................................... Crataegus monogyna Jacq. .................................................................................... Crocus boryi J. Gay ................................................................................................. Cynara scolymus L. ................................................................................................. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. .................................................................................... Cynoglossum officinale L. ....................................................................................... Digitalis grandiflora Mill. ........................................................................................ Dracunculus vulgaris Schott ................................................................................... Drimia numidica .................................................................................................... Ephedra nebrodensis Guss. subsp. procera ............................................................. Eryngium amethystinum L. .................................................................................... Euphorbia characias L. subsp. wulfenii (W. D. J. Koch) Radcl.-Sm. .......................... Foeniculum vulgare Mill. ........................................................................................ Fumaria officinalis L. subsp. officinalis ................................................................... Glycyrrhiza glabra L. ............................................................................................... Humulus lupulus L. ................................................................................................ Hypericum perforatum L. subsp. perforatum ......................................................... 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 9 10 Iris germanica L. ..................................................................................................... Juniperus oxycedrus L. ........................................................................................... Laurus nobilis L. ..................................................................................................... Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas ................................................................... Malva sylvestris L. .................................................................................................. Marrubium vulgare L. ............................................................................................ Matricaria chamomilla L. ....................................................................................... Melissa officinalis L. subsp. altissima (Sm.) Arcang. ............................................... Melittis melissophyllum subsp. albida (Guss.) P. W. Ball ......................................... Mentha aquatica L. ................................................................................................ Mentha pulegium L. ............................................................................................... Myrtus communis L. subsp. communis .................................................................. Origanum vulgare L. subsp. hirtum ........................................................................ Parietaria officinalis L. ............................................................................................ Pistacia lentiscus L. ................................................................................................ Portulaca oleracea L. .............................................................................................. Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh. ............................................................................. Pyrus spinosa Forssk. .............................................................................................. Quercus frainetto Ten. ............................................................................................ Ribes uva-crispa L. subsp. austro-europaeum (Bornm.) Bech. ............................... Rosa canina L. ........................................................................................................ Rosmarinus officinalis L. ........................................................................................ Rubus idaeus L. ...................................................................................................... Salvia fruticosa Mill. ............................................................................................... Salvia officinalis L. subsp. officinalis ....................................................................... Sambucus nigra L. .................................................................................................. Saponaria officinalis L. ........................................................................................... Sideritis clandestina subsp. peloponnesiaca (Boiss. & Heldr.) Baden ...................... Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. ............................................................................. Sinapis alba L. subsp. alba ...................................................................................... Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. ............................................................................. Taraxacum pindicola (Bald.) Hand.-Mazz. .............................................................. Teucrium capitatum L. subsp. capitatum ................................................................ Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. Elench. .......................................................................... Thymus leucotrichus Halácsy subsp. leucotrichus ................................................... Tilia tomentosa Moench ......................................................................................... Tordylium apulum L. .............................................................................................. Tussilago farfara L. ................................................................................................. Urtica dioica L. ....................................................................................................... Urtica urens L. ........................................................................................................ Verbascum thapsus L. ............................................................................................ Vinca major L. ssp. major ........................................................................................ Vitex agnus-castus L. ............................................................................................. 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 Cultivated Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Allium sativum L. ................................................................................................. Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. .......................................................................................... Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott ..................................................................... Artemisia dracunculus L. ...................................................................................... Coriandrum sativum L. ......................................................................................... Cuminum cyminum L. .......................................................................................... Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench .......................................................................... Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. ........................................................................................ Hippophae rhamnoides L. .................................................................................... Jasminum grandiflorum L. ................................................................................... Lycium barbarum L. ............................................................................................. Mentha x piperita L. ............................................................................................. Ocimum basilicum L. ............................................................................................ Pelargonium graveolens (Thunb.) L’Hér. ............................................................... Pimpinella anisum L. ........................................................................................... Punica granatum L. .............................................................................................. Stevia rebaudiana (Bert.) Bertoni ......................................................................... Trigonella foenum-graecum L. ............................................................................. Vaccinium corymbosum L. ................................................................................... 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 11 N ative Aromatic and Medicinal Plants 13 Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit. Čelak Květ. Okolí Pražsk.: 130. 1870 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Achillea fililoba Freyn, Achillea kuemmerleana Prodan. • Traditional English: Bristly yarrow, Yarrow. • Systematic description: Stems 15-30(-45) cm, erect or ascending, simple, with 12-20 internodes. Middle cauline leaves c. 3 x 0,5 cm, narrowly lanceolate in outline, 3-pinnatisect, pubescent to sericeous, the rhachis c. 0,5 mm wide, entire; primary segments c. 2 mm, more or less orbicular in outline, the rhachis c. 0,4 mm wide; lobes filiform, patent. Involucre c. 3 x 1,5-2,5 mm; bracts more or less evenly pubescent. Ligules white. 2n = 18. • Geographical distribution: Dry places. S., S.E. & S.C. Europe, westwards to S.W. Switzerland, and extending northwards to 56° N. in C. Russia. [Au Bu Cz Ge Gr He ?Hs Hu It Ju Po ?Rm Rs (C, W, K, E)]. • Medicinal uses: Since Achillea genus is widespread all over the world, its species have been used by local people as folk or traditional herbal medicines. Herbal teas prepared from Achillea species are traditionally used for abdominal pain and flatulence. Dioscorides also used Achillea for dysentery, whether associated with cholera or other causes. Similar as in species A. millefolium, the dark blue essential oil, extracted by steam distillation of the flowers, is generally used as an anti-inflammatory or in chest rubs for colds and influenza. It is reported to be emmenagogue and antiphlogistic and useful in the treatment of pain, bleeding, gastrointestinal disorders, choleretic inflammation, and stomachache. • Phytochemical composition: GC-MS analysis of the isolated essential oils from air-dried aerial parts of Achillea setacea, resulted in the identification of a high number of compounds, with eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) being the major constituent of oil. Camphor and their derivatives, borneol, terpinen-4-ol and eucalyptol (1,8-cineol) can be considered as the main antimicrobial constituents Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit: Detail of inflorescences. of the oil. From the aerial parts of Achillea setacea, sesquiterpenes with an alpha-methylene-gamma-lactone structure and flavonoids have been isolated. 15 Anchusa officinalis L. subsp. οfficinalis Sp. Pl.: 133. 1753 • Family: Boraginaceae. • Synonyms: Anchusa angustifolia L., Anchusa officinalis subsp. angustifolia (L.) Bjelcić, Anchusa arvalis Rchb., Anchusa microcalyx Vis., Anchusa osmanica Velen. • Traditional English: Alkanet, Bugloss, Common bugloss. • Systematic description: Perennial, rarely biennial, hispid with uniform hairs or setae; stems 20-80(-170) cm, erect. Leaves 50-120 x 10-20 mm. Cymes several, dense; pedicels very short, up to 5 mm in fruit; bracts equalling or shorter than calyx. Calyx 5-7 mm, up to 10 mm in fruit, divided to ½ way or almost to the base into lanceolate, acute lobes. Corolla violet or reddish, rarely white or yellow; tube 5-7 mm, equalling or up to 1½ times as long as calyx; limb 7-15 mm in diameter; stamens inserted in upper half of tube and reaching or partly overlapping scales. Nutlets c. 2 x 4 mm, obliquely ovoid. 2n = 16 ± 0-2B. • Geographical distribution: Much of Europe, but absent from the extreme north, much of the west, and parts of the Mediterranean region. [Al Au Bl Bu Co Cz Da GaGe Gr He Ho Hu It Ju *No Po RmRs (*N, B, C, W, E) Su Tu (*Be *Fe)]. Native in our country distributed in the mainland Greece, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and the islands of North Aegean. In the study area occurs in Aetolia, Achaea, Elis, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. 16 • Medicinal uses: The flowering stems, sometimes also the roots and flowers, are used medically as demulcent and expectorant. Alkanet is used to treat coughs, bronchitis and other chest and throat infections, cuts, bruises and phlebitis. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant for the treatment of stomach and duodenal ulcers. Anchusa officinalis root decoction is believed to have blood cleansing action and is also used as a diuretic and to induce perspiration. Anchusa officinalis L. subsp. officinalis: Detail of flowers. • Phytochemical composition: Silicic acid, alkaloids (including some toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids), mucilage, triterpene saponins and anthocyanin pigments have been determined in the flowering plant. Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. rubriflora (DC.) Arcang. Comp. Fl. Ital.: 178. 1882 • Family: Fabaceae. • Synonyms: Anthyllis font-queri Rothm., Anthyllis gandogeri (Sagorski) W. Becker, Anthyllis praepropera (A. Kern.) Beck, Anthyllis rosea Willk., Anthyllis spruneri (Boiss.) Beck, Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. praepropera (A. Kern.) Bornm., Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. spruneri (Boiss.) Bornm. • Traditional English: Common kidneyvetch, Kidney vetch, Woundwort. • Systematic description: Annual, biennial or perennial. Stems 10-35 cm, ascending to erect, hirsute below. Lowest leaves usually with only 1 leaflet; uppermost leaves equifoliolate with 7-13 leaflets, upper leaves imparipinnate, equifoliolate or not. Heads many-flowered, subtended by 2 palmatisect bracts borne close beneath the flowers. Calyx inflated at anthesis, constricted at the apex, with 5 unequal teeth and the mouth oblique. Corolla yellow, red, purple, orange, whitish or parti-coloured. Legume 1(-2)-seeded. Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. rubriflora (DC.) Arcang: Detail of inflorescences. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region, but absent from Spain and much of Italy. [Al Bl Co Cr Ga Gr It Ju Sa Tu]. • Medicinal uses: A pomade is used for the treatment of ulcers and woods. It has purgative and anti-asthmatic properties. Maceration is used for shampooing hair to prevent hair loss. • Phytochemical composition: It contains tannins, mucilage, saponins, xanthophylls and organic pigments. 17 Arbutus unedo L. Sp. Pl.: 395. 1753 • Family: Ericaceae. • Synonyms: Arbutus serratifolia Salisb., nom. illeg., Arbutus salicifolia Hoffmanns. • Traditional English: Strawberry Tree, Irish strawberry tree, Killarney strawberry tree, Cane apple. • Systematic description: Usually a bushy shrub 1,53 m, occasionally a small tree up to 12 m. Bark fissured, peeling off in small flakes, mostly dull brown; young twigs glandular-setose, at least in part. Leaves 4-11 x 1,5-4 cm, oblong-lanceolate, usually 2-3 times as long as wide, serrate to subentire, glabrous except at extreme base; petiole 10 mm or less. Panicle 4-5 cm, drooping, appearing in autumn. Calyx 1,5 mm, with suborbicular lobes; corolla c. 9 x 7 mm, white, often tinged with green or pink. Berry c. 20 mm, covered with conical papillae, ripening through yellow and scarlet to deep crimson. 2n = 26. 18 • Geographical distribution: Evergreen scrub, woodmargins and rocky slopes. Mediterranean region and S. W. Europe, extending northwards locally to N.W. Ireland. [Al Bl Co Cr Ga Gr HbHs It Ju Lu Sa Si Tu]. It is a narrowly Mediterranean species. In Greece, it is found both in mainland and the islands. In the area of the study it occurs in Achaia, Elis, Etoloacarnania and Ionian islands (Zakynthos and Kefalonia). It is native, abundant and in very good populations. It can be collected from nature without risk of deterioration. In our region the species Arbutus andrachne L. (native to the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, and southwestern Asia) is, also, grown. • Medicinal uses: The leaves, bark and root are well known in folk medicine as antiseptics, diuretics, and laxatives, while flowers are weakly diaphoretic. They are of use in the treatment of affections of the urinary system such as cystitis and urethritis. Their astringent action makes them of use in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery and, like many other astringent plants, a gargle can be made for treating sore and irritated throats. Arbutus unedo L.: Colored (mature) fruits and flowers. • Phytochemical composition: All parts are rich in polyphenols, from simple phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins to more complex tannins. Arctium lappa L. Sp. Pl.: 816. 1753 •Family: Astreraceae. • Synonyms: Arctium majus Bernh., nom. illeg., Arctium vulgare (Hill) Druce, Lappa glabra Lam., nom. illeg., Lappa major Gaertn., nom. illeg., Lappa officinalis All., nom. illeg., Lappa vulgaris Hill, nom. nov., Arctium chaorum Klokov • Traditional English: Greater burdock, Gobō, Edible burdock, Lappa, or Beggar’s buttons. • Systematic description: Plant 90-150 cm. Stems, petioles and peduncles pubescent to subglabrous. Each main branch of inflorescence corymbose. Basal leaves up to 50 cm, broadly ovate, cordate, usually obtuse; petioles solid. Peduncles 3-10 cm. Involucre 20-25 x 35-42 mm in fruit, globose in bud, hemispherical and widely open above in fruit, shiny golden-green, glabrous or subglabrous. Florets about as long as involucral bracts. Achenes 6-7 mm; pappus 1,3-5 mm. 2n = 36. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe except the extreme north. • Medicinal uses: It is used to treat conditions caused by an ‘overload’ of toxins, such as throat and other infections, rashes and other skin problems. The plant is antibacterial, antifungal, carminative. It has soothing, mucilaginous properties and is said to be one of the most certain cures for many types of skin diseases, burns, bruises etc. It is used in the treatment of herpes, eczema, acne, impetigo, ringworm, boils, bites etc. The plant can be taken internally as an infusion, or used externally as a wash. Use with caution. The roots of one-year old plants are harvested in mid-summer and dried. They are alterative, aperient, blood purifier, cholagogue, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic and stomachic. European Medicines Agency (EMA), recognising the long-standing use of Arctium root, allows its use as a traditional herbal medicinal product in order to 1) increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract as an adjuvant in minor urinary tract complaints, 2) in temporary Arctium lappa L.: Inflorescences (heads), with spiny bracts. loss of appetite, and 3) in treatment of seborrhoeic skin conditions. The seeds are also considered as antiphlogistic, depurative, diaphoretic and diuretic agents. Recent research has shown that seed extracts lower blood sugar levels. The seed is harvested in the summer and dried for later use. The crushed seed is poulticed onto bruises. The leaves are poulticed onto burns, ulcers and sores. Leaf cataplasms have been used against rheumatism, whereas infusions are used for are used for stomach ulcer and gastritis. • Phytochemical composition: Arctium radix contains polysaccharides (up to 70% of dry mass, mainly inulin), fatty acids (0,4-0,8%), many triterpenes (acids, esters, alcohols), lignans (mainly arctiin), phenolic acids, flavonoids and tannins (up to 3,65% in the fresh root), and an essential oil (up to 0,18%). Leaves contain sesquiterpenes (mainly in the essential oil), free terpene alcohols and esters, and sterols, fatty acids (mainly saturated), phenolic acids, ascorbic acid and tannins, whereas the seeds are rich in fatty oils, lignans (including arctiin) and daucosterol. 19 Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L. Sp. Pl., ed. 2: 1188. 1763 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Absinthium arborescens Vaill. • Traditional English: Artemesia (referring to the Greek goddess Artemis who so benefited from a plant of this family that she gave it her own name), Great mugwort, Arborescent mugwort, Tree Wormwood. • Systematic description: White-tomentose, aromatic perennial; stems 50-100 cm, woody below. Leaves 1- to 2-pinnatisect or the upper sometimes simple, petiolate; lobes 5-25 x 1-2 mm, obtuse. Capitula 6-7 mm across inflorescence. Involucre 3,5-4 mm; bracts ovate, tomentose, with a wide, glabrous, scarious margin. Receptacle hairy. Corolla glabrous. 2n = 18. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region, S. Portugal. [Bl Co Cr Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si (Ga)]. It’s distribution in our country includes south Greece and Crete. In the study area it is found in Ilia and Kefalonia • Medicinal uses: A. arborescens has several medicinal uses throughout history, such as anthelmintic, aperitive, diuretic, emmenagogue and abortive. Leaf infusions have been used to treat common cold, asthma, hayfever, asthmatic bronchitis, vertigo, and as hypoglycemic agents. The powdered leaf is used in traditional medicine as an external application in the treatment of cutaneous infections, dermatosis, allergic reactions, venous congestions; it is considered antiseptic. 20 • Phytochemical composition: The genus has a high content in essential oil; thujone, camphor and chamazulene constitute up to 75% of the components. The high content in chamazulene explains its anti-inflammatory uses and properties, whereas spasmolytic and antiviral properties have been reported for the essential oil. Apart from essential oil, the plants contains phenolic acids, flavonoids, sesquiterpenes, sterols and other triterpenes. Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L.: Inflorescence. Asparagus acutifolius L. Sp. Pl.: 314. 1753 • Family: Asparagaceae • Synonyms: Asparagus aetnensis Tornab., Asparagus ambiguus De Not., Asparagus brevifolius Tornab., Asparagus commutatus Ten., Asparagus corruda Scop., Asparagus inarimensis Tornab. • Traditional English: Areasparagus and Sparrowgrass. • Systematic description: Stem up to 200 cm, woody, white or grey. Stem and branches longitudinally striate, papillose or almost smooth. Cladodes 2-8(-10) x 0,3-0,5 mm, subequal, in fascicles of (5-)10-30(-50), patent, strongly spiny. Pedicels 3-7(-8) mm, surrounded by bracteoles at the base. Nodes with (1-)2-4 flowers mixed with the cladodes. Perianth-segments 3-4 mm. Berry 4,5-7,5(-10) mm, black, with 1-2 seeds. 2n = 40. The cladodes are generally shorter in populations from the western than from the eastern part of the Mediterranean region. Plants from coastal areas, mainly from the islands, are sometimes only slightly woody and have thin, scarcely spiny cladodes (var. gracilis Baker). Asparagus acutifolius L.: Branch with fruits.. Asparagus are asparagine, arginine, tyrosine, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin, and rutin), resin, and tannin. • Geographical distribution: S. Europe, eastwards to Kriti and S.E. Bulgaria. [Al Bl Bu Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si Tu]. Ιt is native in our country with distribution mainly in Mainland Greece and less in the Ionian and Aegean islands. It is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia, Cephalonia, Ithaca and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Asparagus species are considered cleansing, detoxifying and diuretic agents. The root of Asparagus officinalis is diuretic and it is recommended in dropsy, as a powerful cardiac sedative, for schistosomiasis and tuberculosis. The roots of Asparagus filicinus are considered as tonic, astringent, and vermifuge. • Phytochemical composition: The major bioactive constituents of Asparagus are a group of steroidal saponins. Characteristic organosulfur components are responsible for the characteristic odor in urine after consumption. This plant also contains vitamins A, B1, B2, C, E, Mg, P, Ca, Fe, and folic acid. Other primary chemical constituents of 21 Asphodelus ramosus L. Sp. Pl.: 310. 1753 • Family: Asphodelaceae. • Synonyms: Asphodelus albus subsp. ramosus (L.) Bonnier & Layens, Asphodelus ramosus L. subsp. ramosus, Asphodelus ramosus subsp. distalis Z. Díaz & Valdés • Traditional English: Asphodel, White Asphodel, Royal Staff, Branched Asphodel, King’s Spear. • Systematic description: Perennial with napiform roots. Leaves 15-40 x 1-3(-4) cm, flat, somewhat keeled. Scape 40-150 cm, solid, usually much-branched, the lateral branches almost as long as the terminal. Bracts scarious to pale green. Perianth-segments 15-20 mm, lanceolate or linear-oblong, obtuse. Capsule 8-14 x 5-11 mm, ovoid. 2n = 28, 56, 84. • Geographical distribution: S.W. Europe, extending locally eastwards to S.W. Greece. [Co Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si]. • Medicinal uses: It can be used like as diuretic and for decongesting irritated skin. • Phytochemical composition: The plant contains carbohydrates, glucoside and alcaloids. 22 Asphodelus ramosus L.: Habit. Berberis cretica L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 331. • Family: Berberidaceae. • Synonyms: Berberis cretica var. serratifolia Loudon, Berberis vulgaris var. cretica (L.) Hook.f. & Thomson. • Traditional English: Cretan Bareberry. • Systematic description: Very similar with B. hispanica, but it is stoloniferous, leaves nearly always entire; recemes 7-15mm, scarcely exceeding the leaves, with only 3-8 flowers; honey-leaves c. 4,5 mm, longer than the inner perianth- segments; fruit 6-7 mm. • Geographical distribution: N. Africa, E. Med, including Cyprus, scarcer in the European Mediterranean. Mountains of Greece and Aegean region. Widespread and common in Crete. In our country it is native and spread in mainland Greece, Crete and the Aegean. In the study area it grows at altitudes of 1.500-2.200 m. Berberis creticaL.: Aspect of the plant with the spiny branches. • Medicinal uses: Extracts from berberis species are used as analgesic, antibacterial, antiviral, antiarrhythmic, antiinflammatory, hypoglycemic, cholagogic, as ossific, to treat indigestion and diarrhea. Roots and cortex of berberis in decoction are useful for infections of the lung, kidney and liver. Berberis also helps to eliminate stones from the gallbladder and the kidneys. Berberis is also used internally for dysentery, malaria, leishmaniasis, hepatitis, liver cancer, gallstones and kidney stones but also in hypertension. The leaves are used as antihemorrhagics in gynecological haemorrhages. • Phytochemical composition: The characteristic phytochemicals in the genus are the tetracyclic alkaloids (protoberberines) derived from benzylisoquinoline, which are responsible for the dyeing and many of the medicinal properties. These plants are also rich sources of tannins, waxes, mucus, mineral salts and pectins. 23 Blitum bonus-henricus (L.) Rchb. Fl. Germ. Excurs.: 582. 1832 • Family: Chenopodiaceae. • Synonyms: Blitum bonus-henricus L., Blitum bonushenricus (L.) C. A. Mey., Chenopodium esculentus. • Traditional English: Poor-man’s Asparagus, Perennial Goosefoot, Lincolnshire Spinach or Markery. • Systematic description: Perennial 5-80 cm, erect or ascending, sparsely farinose. Leaves more or less triangular, hastate to sagittate, usually subentire except for basal lobes. Inflorescence mostly terminal, narrow, tapering, leafless above. Sepals not or scarcely keeled. Stigmas 0,8-1,5 mm. Seeds 1,5-2,2 mm in diameter, vertical except in the terminal flowers. 2n = 36. • Geographical distribution: Much of Europe but rare in the east and doubtfully native in the north; mainly on mountains in the south. [Al Au *Be Bu Co Cz *Da Ga Ge Gr He *Ho Hs Hu It Ju Lu *No *Po Rm Rs (*B, C, W, E) Sa Si (Br Fe Hb)]. In our country it is found in mainland mountains. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaia and Ilia. • Medicinal uses: The roots, seeds and the herb are used as an emollient and laxative. A poultice of the leaves has been used to cleanse and heal chronic sores, boils and abscesses. • Phytochemical composition: The herb and the roots are rich in saponins. Ecdysteroids have been isolated from the roots. 24 Blitum bonus-henricus (L.) Rchb.: Plant with inflorescence. Borago officinalis L. Sp. Pl.: 137. 1753 • Family: Boraginaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Borage, Starflower. • Systematic description: Hispid annual; stems 1570 cm, erect, robust, often branched. Basal leaves 5-20 cm, ovate to lanceolate, petiolate; upper cauline leaves sessile, amplexicaul. Pedicels 5-30 mm, stout, patent or deflexed after anthesis. Calyx 8-15 mm at anthesis, up to 20 mm in fruit; lobes linear-lanceolate, acute, connivent in fruit. Corolla rotate, bright blue, rarely white; tube very short or almost absent; lobes 8-15 mm, lanceolate, acute. Nutlets 7-10 mm, oblong-obovoid. 2n = 16. • Geographical distribution: S. Europe; widely cultivated for ornament use and it is naturalized in the warmer parts of C., E. & W. Europe, short-lived escape further north. [*AzBl Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si Tu (Au Br Cz Ge He Ho Hu Po RmRs -C, W, K, E-)], Dry, often waste places. Ιt is native in our country with distribution mainly in southern Greece Crete and the eastern Aegean. It is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia and Zakynthos. Collection risk has not been recorded. • Medicinal uses: Borage is a fairly common domestic herbal remedy that has been used since ancient times. It is considered beneficial for nervous system, it is used to dispel melancholy and induce euphoria. It has also diaphoretic, depurative, mildly diuretic, emollient, expectorant, febrifuge, lenitive and mildly sedative properties. The plant parts are used to prepare infusions, though it should not be prescribed to people with liver problems. Externally it is used as a poultice for inflammatory swellings. The seed oil helps to regulate the hormonal systems and lower blood pressure. It is used both internally and externally, helping to relieve skin complaints and pre-menstrual tension. Used for the treatment of phlebitis (inflammation of the veins). • Phytochemical composition: The seeds are a rich source of gamma-linolenic acid. Various polyphenols Borago officinalis L.: Flowers. have been isolated from borago, but the pyrrolizidine alkaloids present in low amounts have attracted most of the attention due to their carcinogenic and liver toxic properties. 25 Brassica nigra (L.) W. D. J. Koch in Röhl., Deutschl. Fl., ed. 3, 4: 713. 1833 • Family: Brassicaceae. • Synonyms: Sinapis nigra L., Brassica bracteolata Fisch. & C. A. Mey. • Traditional English: Black mustard, Brown mustard, Indian mustard. • Systematic description: Annual; stems up to 100 cm or more, branched from the middle or from near the base. Lower leaves lyrate- pinnatisect, with 1-3 pairs of lateral lobes and much larger terminal lobe, hispid on both surface; upper leaves linear- oblong, entire or sinuate glabrous; all leaves petiolate. Petals 7-9 mm, yellow. Siliquae 10-20 x 1,5-2 mm, attenuate into a slender, seedless beak, on short (2,5- 6mm) pedicels appressed to the stem. 2n = 16. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe but commonest in the center and south; usually as an alien but its range as a native is certain. It is native in Greece, with distribution all over the country. It is found at Etoloacarnania, Achaia, Elia, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. 26 • Medicinal uses: Mustard seeds are often used in herbal medicine, especially as a rubefacient poultice or plaster. When Brassica nigra is applied topically, it creates an irritant, hyperemic effect. Mustard seed plasters are most often applied over the lungs in order to loosen congestion and to stimulate expectoration. Hot water poured on bruised seeds makes a stimulant foot bath, good for colds and headaches. Mustard oil has also been used for treating alopecia, epilepsy, snakebite, and toothache. The seed is also used internally; in low amounts it is appetizer, digestive, diuretic and tonic, whereas in higher amounts it causes emesis. Mustard flour is considered antiseptic. • Phytochemical composition: Glucosinates are considered to be the most active constituent group. When the seeds are crushed and combined with warm water (not with hot water - enzymes would be destroyed), or chewed, the glucosinates, particularly sinigrin, are Brassica nigra (L.) W. D. J. Koch in Röhl: Plants in cultivation. hydrolyzed by enzymes into active compounds such as allyisothiocyanate, which is responsible for the pungent taste. Phenyl propane derivatives and fixed oil (30%), mucilage and proteins have been isolated and identified. Bryonia dioica Jacq. Fl. Austriac. 2: 59. 1774 • Family: Cucurbitaceae. • Synonyms: Bryonia acuta Desf., Bryonia cretica L. subsp. dioica (Jacq) Tutin. • Traditional English: Red bryony, White bryony, Bryony, Wild hop. Bryonia dioica previously named Bryonia cretica L. subsp. dioica. Cretica derives from the Latin créticus or the Greek krétikos and indicates the plant’s Cretan origin. The botanist Linné named the subspecies dioica for «two-housed». • Systematic description: Dioecious. Stems up to 4 m, branched. Leaves 5-10cm, ovate, cordate, 5-angled or palmately 5-lobed; leaf-lobes entire or with few, large, subobtuse teeth, the central usually markedly longer than the lateral; calyx of female flowers usually about half as long as the corolla; stigma papillose- hairy; fruit 6-10 mm in diameter, red. Leaves and young fruit uniformly green. Male inflorescence glandular with few or no long hairs. 2n = 20. • Geographical distribution: S., S.C. & W. Europe. Formerly cultivated as a medicinal plant and often naturalized. In Greece, it is found mostly at the mainland and in some small populations at Ionian islands. In the area of study it is found in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia, Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Hippocrates used Bryonia’s root to treat whoever suffered from tetanus. Dioscouridis names the plant «Ofiostafilon», meaning the grape of snakes, in order to indicate its poisonous capacity. In antiquity, it was believed that the roots, the leaves and the seeds of the plant possess medicinal properties for malignant ulcers, dermatitis, skin rashes, infections, abscesses, epilepsies. It was given as an antidote, in cases of poisonous snake bite. Bryonia root is a considered a powerful cathartic and purgative agent. In small quantities, it is used internally in the treatment of stomach and intestinal diseases, lung diseases, arthritis, liver disease, and metabolic disorders; and to prevent infections. It is also used Bryonia dioica Jacq.: Habit. to increase urination to relieve fluid retention. In larger medicinal doses, it has been used as an emetic, whereas in high doses it is considered poisonous. Externally, it is applied as a rubefacient to muscular and joint pains and pleurisy. • Phytochemical composition: Characteritic triterpenes (curcubitacins) and alkaloids have been identified and these are considered responsible for the plant toxicity. Toxic glycoproteins and lectins in the root have also been described. Other important ingredients are gums and flavonoids.. 27 Calendula officinalis L. Sp. Pl.: 921. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Calendula aurantiaca, Calendula eriocarpa. Calendula hydruntina, Caltha officinalis. • Traditional English: Pot Marigold. • Systematic description: Annual to perennial, woody only at the base. Stems (17-)20-50(-10) cm, erect, diffuse or procumbent, much-branched, generally leafy almost to apex. Leaves (3-)7-14(-17) x 1-4(-6) cm, oblanceolate, narrowly obovate, oblong or spathulate, shortly acute or obtuse, glandular-pubescent to sparsely arachnoid-floccose, usually subentire to obscurely repand-dentate. Capitula usually 4-7 cm in diameter. Ligules often 2 cm, at least twice as long as the involucral bracts, yellow or orange; tubular florets usually more or less concolorous with ligules, sometimes brownish. Capitula in fruit with or without an outer row of incurved narrowly beaked achenes 2-2,5 cm, alternating with much shorter, cymbiform achenes. • Geographical distribution: Cultivated for ornament throughout Europe; locally naturalized in S. & W. Europe and a frequent casual elsewhere. [Az Br Hs It.] The original habitat is obscure but it is found as a garden escape on waste, cultivated and arable land and along roadsides. It is found worldwide, in gardens and fields and in Europe it is found only cultivated. In southern and western Europe it occurs in places randomly and sporadically usually in natural populations. It is found in gardens, but also in fields in Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia. In the study area it is found at altitudes of 0-600 (-1000)m. 28 • Medicinal uses: Calendula is commonly used in tincture form internally and in the form of an oil, cream or ointment for external application. Applied externally, it is used for a variety of skin problems, such as skin traumas, surgical wounds and diseases like ulcer, abscess, acne, psoriasis, eczema, pruritus, vaginitis, cervicitis, diaper rash, varicose veins, etc. Furthermore, it is considered a cleansing and detoxifying herb and is taken internally in treating fevers and chronic infections. As a gargle it is used for the treatment of gingivitis, stomatitis and oral ulcers. It is used for the treatment of conjunctivitis in the form of eyewash, poultices or compresses, whereas for the treatment of gonococcal Calendula officinalis L.: Habit. leucorrhea it is used as a douche or rinse. A tea of the petals tones up the circulation and, taken regularly, can ease varicose veins. The whole plant, but especially the flowers and the leaves, is antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aperient, astringent, cholagogue, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue. The European Medicines Agency, in recognize of its long-standing use, approved its circulation as traditional herbal medicinal product a) for the symptomatic treatment of minor inflammations of the skin (such as sunburn) and as an aid in healing of minor wounds, and b) for the symptomatic treatment of minor inflammations in the mouth or the throat. Calendula arvensis L. has similar medicinal properties. • Phytochemical composition: The major constituents are triterpene saponins (2-10% in dried flower heads) based on oleanolic acid (i.e. calendulosides) and flavonoids (3-O-glycosides of isorhamnetin and quercetin), including astragalin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin and rutin. Other constituents include essential oil, sesquiterpenes (e.g. caryophyllene) and triterpenes (e.g. α- and β-amyrins, lupeol and lupenone). Polysaccharides have also been reported in high amounts (15%). Capparis spinosa L. Sp. Pl.: 503. 1753 • Family: Capparaceae. • Synonyms: Capparis inermis Turra (1780), Capparis orientalis Veill. (1800), Capparis rupestris Sm. (1806). • Traditional English: Caper, caperbush, Common caperbush, Fabagelle, Mediterranean caperbush, Spiny caper-bush. Caper comes from the Greek name of the plant “kapparis”, quoted by Theophrastus (IV century B.C.), in turn probably coming from the Arabic “kabbar”; the name of the species is the Latin name “spinosus” = thorny, with obvious reference. • Systematic description: Leaves glabrous, petiolate, orbicular or orbicular-ovate, obtuse or emarginated at the apex. Stipular spines recurved, sometimes weakly developed. Flowers 5-7 cm in diameter, slightly zygomorphic. Sepals purplish. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region; [Al Bl Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Rs (K) Sa Si]. Caper bush is present in almost all the circum-Mediterranean countries and is included in the floristic composition of most of them but whether it is indigenous to this region is uncertain. • Medicinal uses: The root-bark is analgesic, anthelmintic, antihaemorrhoidal, aperient, deobstruent, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, tonic and vasoconstrictive and promotes appetite . It is used internally in the treatment of gastrointestinal infections, diarrhoea, gout and rheumatism. Externally, it is used to treat skin conditions, capillary weakness and easy bruising. The bark is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use. The unopened flower buds are laxative, they are used to treat coughs and treat eye infections. they are rich in compounds known as aldose-reductose inhibitors - it has been shown that these compounds are effective in preventing the formation of cataracts. The buds are harvested before the flowers open and can be pickled for later use - when prepared correctly they are said to ease stomach pain. A decoction of the plant is used to Capparis spinosa L.: Habit. treat vaginal thrush. The leaves are bruised and applied as a poultice in the treatment of gout. The consumption of capers may contribute to the daily dose of natural anticarcinogens that reduces cancer risk. Glucosinolates are also known to possess goitrogenic (anti-thyroid) activity. Caper consumption is considered to contribute to the antioxidant reinforcement. • Phytochemical composition: Flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol glycosides), glucosinolates, polyprenols, prenyl glycosides, tocopherols (vitamin E), vitamin C, carotenoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and sterols in seed oil, alkaloids in roots. 29 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Pfl.-Gatt.: 85. 1792 • Family: Brassicaceae. • Synonyms: Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L., Bursa djurdjurae Shull, Bursa fracticruris Borbás, Bursa nana (Baumg.) Borbás, Bursa occidentalis Shull, Bursa pastoris Hill, Capsella apetala Opiz, Capsella batavorum E. B. Almq., Capsella concava E. B. Almq., Capsella heegeri Solms, Capsella mediterranea E. B., Bursa pastoris Weber Almq., Capsella patagonica E. B. Almq., Capsella ruderalis Jord., Capsella stenocarpa Timb.-Lagr., Capsella treviorum E. B. Almq., Capsella turoniensis E. B. Almq., Solmsiella heegeri (Solms) Borbás, Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. occidentalis (Shull) Maire, Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. typica Emb. & Maire. • Traditional English: Shepherd’s-purse because of its triangular, purse-like pods. • Systematic description: Plant sparsely hairy, especially below, or glabrous. Flowers scentless. Sepals usually green, often pubescent. Petals 2-3 mm, about twice as long as sepals, white (rarely absent). Silicula 6-9 x 4-9 mm, usually longer than wide, scarcely attenuate at base, usually only slightly emarginate; lateral margins usually straight or convex; apical lobes usually subacute; style c. 0,25mm. 2n = 32. • Geographical distribution: Throughout Europe as a ruderal. Present in all territories. 30 • Medicinal uses: A tea made from the whole plant is antiscorbutic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, haemostatic, hypotensive, oxytocic, stimulant, vasoconstrictor, vasodilator and vulnerary, it is also considered to be a sovereign remedy against haemorrhages of all kinds the stomach, the lungs, the uterus and more especially the kidneys. It has uterine-contracting properties and is traditionally used during childbirth. It is used in the treatment of and urinary calculus. It is approved that Capsella bursa-pastoris can be used for nose bleeds, premenstrual syndrome, wounds and burns. Acknowledging its longuse as a styptic remedy, the European Medicines Agency Capsella bursa-pastoris: Plant with flowers and fruits. approved the circulation of dried herba or of liquid extracts as a traditional herbal medicinal product for the reduction of heavy menstrual bleeding in women with regular menstrual cycles, after serious conditions have been excluded by a medical doctor. • Phtyochemical composition: A lot of compounds have been identified in the aerial parts of the plant. It contains flavonoids, phenolic acids, saponins and other triterpenes, polar lipids, resins, mustard oil glycosides. Celtis australis L. Sp. Pl.: 1043. 1753 • Family: Ulmaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: European nettle tree, Nettle Tree. • Systematic description: Tree up to 25 m, with grey bark. Leaves 4-15 x 1,5-6 cm, lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, serrate, long-acuminate, rounded or cordate at base, scabrid above, pubescent beneath. Peduncle up to 3,5 cm. Drupe 9-12 mm in diameter, globose, glabrous, brownish-black when ripe; endocarp strongly reticulate-rugose. • Geographical distribution: S. Europe. [Al Bl Bu Co Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Rm Sa Si (He)]. Celtis australis L.: Leaves and fruits. • Medicinal uses: The leaves and fruit are astringent, lenitive and stomachic. The leaves are gathered in early summer and dried for later use. The fruit, particularly before it is fully ripe, is considered to be more effective medicinally. A decoction of both leaves and fruit is used in the treatment of amenorrhoea, heavy menstrual and intermenstrual bleeding and colic. The decoction can also be used to astringe the mucous membranes in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and peptic ulcers. • Phytochemical composition: The leaves are a rich source of flavonoids and gamma-glucosidase. Young leaves have a higher amount of phenolics per gram of dry weight. There is a tendency of high consistency in phenolics at the beginning of cultivation period. The quick decline of phenolics later affects on derivatives of caffeic acid και τα flavonoids. 31 Centaurea cyanus L. Sp. Pl.: 911. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Centaurea cyanus L., Centaurea cyanocephala Velen., Centaurea hortorum Pau, Centaurea cyanus subsp. coa Rech. f. • Traditional English: Cornflower, Bachelor’s button, Bluebottle, Boutonniere flower, Hurtsickle, Cyani flower. • Systematic description: Annual, rarely biennial. Stem 20-80 cm, erect, branched. Leaves floccose beneath, glabrescent and green; lower lanceolate, entire, remotely dentate or lyrately pinnatisect with 1-3 linear or lanceolate segments on each side, acute, petiolate; upper linear-lanceolate, entire. Involucre 12-13 mm in diameter, ovoid-globose; appendages narrowly (0,3 mm) decurrent, brown; fimbriae c. 1 mm, silvery. Inner florets bluish-violet; outer dark blue, rarely white or purple. Achenes 3,5-4 mm; pappus 3-4 mm. 2n = 24. • Geographical distribution: Native in dry, open habitats in S.E. Europe and Sicilia; naturalized in cornfields almost throughout Europe, but now very rare or only casual in Br Hb Rs (E) and perhaps other regions. [Al Bu Gr *Ju Si Tu (Au Be Br Co Cz Da Fe Ga Ge Hb He Ho Hs Hu It Lu No Po Rm Rs -N, B, C, W, K, E- Sa Su)]. It is native in our country and spread in Mainland Greece.It is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia. 32 • Medicinal uses: Cornflower has a long history of herbal use, though it is seldom employed nowadays. The dried flowers are antipruritic, antitussive, astringent, weakly diuretic, emmenagogue, very mildly purgative, and tonic. An infusion can be used in the treatment of dropsy, constipation, or as a mouthwash for ulcers and bleeding gums. This infusion is also taken as a bitter tonic and appetite stimulant, improving the digestion and possibly supporting the liver as well as improving resistance to infections. The seeds are used as a mild laxative for children. A decoction of the leaves is antirheumatic, antifungal, and as a hair rinse to treat scalp eczema. A douche is used to treat vaginal Candida infections. Corn- Centaurea cyanus L.: Flowering head, with characteristic bracts and flowers. flower can be used for cuts, scrapes, eruptions on the skin, acne, and bruising of the skin. • Phytochemical composition: Flavonoids and polysaccharides are major components in cornflower herba, whereas characteristic indole alkaloids have been found in the seeds. Ceratonia siliqua L. Sp. Pl.: 1026. 1753 • Family: Caesalpiniaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Carob, Locust bean tree, St. John’s bread, Sugar Pod. The common name Carob is cognate with the weight measure ‘carat’, and refers to the use of the seeds (which are very uniform in size) as weights for measuring gold and precious stones. The other names, Locust bean tree and St. John’s bread, were derived from the Bible; St. John the Baptist is said to have sustained himself on fruit of the “locust” tree when wandering in the wilderness. • Systematic description: Tree or shrub up to 10 m. Leaflets 2-5 pairs, 30-50 x 30-40 mm, elliptical or obovate to suborbicular, coriaceous, dark green and shining above, pale green beneath. Flowers green. Legume 1020 x 1,5-2 cm, brownish-violet, pendent. • Geographical distribution: Native to the Mediterranean region, but also extensively cultivated there (and in Portugal) for fodder and widely naturalized, so that the limits as a native are hard to determine. [Al Bl Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Sa Si (Co Lu)]. In our country it occurs in southern Greece and the Greek islands, the dry and hot coastal zone. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaea, Elis, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaca near the nearshore. • Medicinal uses: The pulp in the seedpods of carob is very nutritious, it is weet-tasting and mildly laxative, it is also astringent and used in a decoction, will treat diarrhoea and gently help to cleanse and also relieve irritation within the gut. Whilst these appear to be contradictory effects, carob is an example of how the body responds to herbal medicines in different ways, considering the way of preparation and the type of health problem. The seedpods are also used to treat coughs and for digestion problems including, heartburn, intestine’s inability to properly absorb certain nutrients from food. Other uses include treatment of obesity, vomiting during pregnancy, and high cholesterol. Ceratonia siliqua L.: Female tree with immature fruits (pods). • Phytochemical composition: The carob tree has great value due to its pods. The pods are rich in sugar while the seeds are rich in proteins. Mature carob pods contain a large amount of condensed tannins. The sugar can be extracted from the pods by alcohol and the molasses obtained as a by-product can be fermented to produce ethyl alcohol. The seeds also contain Vitamin A, D, E and traces of B1. A gum commonly known as carob gum or Tragasol, is obtained from the seeds and consists of the horny greyish-white endosperms separated from the seeds by specific machinery. It is odorless and has a mucilaginous taste. 33 Cichorium intybus L. Sp. Pl.: 813. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Cichorium balearicum Porta, Cichorium glabratum C. Presl, Cichorium glaucum Hoffmanns. & Link, Cichorium hirsutum Gren., Cichorium intybus subsp. balearicum (Porta) Gand., Cichorium intybus subsp. foliosum (Hegi) Janch., Cichorium intybus subsp. glabratum (C. Presl) Arcang., Cichorium intybus subsp. glaucum (Hoffmanns. & Link) Tzvelev, Cichorium intybus subsp. sativum (DC.) Janch. • Traditional English: Chicory. Common chicory is also known as blue daisy, blue dandelion, blue sailors, blue weed, bunk, coffeeweed, cornflower, hendibeh, horseweed, ragged sailors, succory, wild bachelor’s buttons, and wild endive. (Note: “Cornflower”, is more commonly applied to Centaurea cyanus.) • Systematic description: Glabrous or with subrigid hairs. Perennial with long, stout taproot. Stems 30-120 cm, erect, with rigid, patent-ascending branches. Basal leaves 7-30 x 1-12 cm, oblanceolate, runcinate-pinnatifid to dentate, shortly petiolate; cauline with fewer teeth or entire, sessile, amplexicaul. Peduncles of terminal capitula slightly thickened at apex. Involucre 11-14 x 4-10 mm; outer bracts c. 8, broadly lanceolate, patent at apex; inner bracts c. 5, twice as long as the outer and narrower, erect. Ligules bright blue, rarely pink or white, 3 times as long as involucre. Achenes 2-3 mm, irregularly angular, pale brown; pappus-scales 1/10-1/8 as long as achene. 2n = 18. • Geographical distribution: Much of Europe, but 34 doubtfully native in most of the north. Formerly culti- vated as a medicinal plant, and more recently as a coffee substitute and for ornament, and widely naturalized. All except Fa Is Sb, but only casual or doubtfully naturalized in Fe Hb No Rs (N). It occurs on grassy meadows and arable land, especially on chalk. It is native in our country and spread throughout Greece. It is found in Aetolia, Achaea, Elis, Cephalonia, Ithaca and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Chicory has a long history of herbal use and is especially of great value for its tonic effect upon Cichorium intybus L.: Inflorescence (head) of a blue-flowered form. the liver and digestive tract. The root and the leaves are appetizer, cholagogue, depurative, digestive, diuretic, hypoglycaemic, laxative and tonic. A decoction of the root has proved to be of benefit in the treatment of jaundice, liver enlargement, gout and rheumatism. A decoction of the freshly harvested plant is used for treating gravel. The root extracts have experimentally produced a slower and weaker heart rate (pulse). The plant merits research for use in heart irregularities. The latex in the stems is applied to warts in order to destroy them. The European Medicines Agency states that the comminuted root can be used as a herbal tea (traditional herbal medicinal product) for the relief of symptoms related to mild digestive disorders (such as feeling of abdominal fullness, flatulence and slow digestion) and temporary loss of appetite due to its long-standing use throughout Europe. • Phytochemical composition: The characteristic components in roots but also in the heads of the plants, are a range of sesquiterpene lactones, which are also responsible for the bitter taste of the plant. The whole plant contains flavonoids (especially the flowers contain anthocyanins), whereas coumarins have been detected in the stems. Cistus creticus L. subsp. creticus Syst. Nat. ed. 10: 1077. 1759 • Family: Cistaceae. • Synonyms: Cistus creticus, Cistus polymorphus, Cistus villosus subsp. creticus. • Traditional English: Rock Rose, Pink Rock Rose, • Systematic description: Stems up to 100 cm, erect or spreading. Leaves (10-)20-50(-70) x 8-30 mm, ovate, obovate or elliptical, often undulate, pinnately veined, green or greyish, pubescent or tomentose with stellate hairs, with the veins impressed above and prominent beneath. Petioles 3-15 mm. Cymes 1- to 7-flowered, more or less symmetrical. Sepals 5, ovate-lanceolate, long-acuminate, with stellate hairs and long, simple hairs. Flowers 4-6 cm in diameter, purplish-pink. Cistus creticus subsp. creticus Greuter and Burdet: Habit. • Geographical distribution: Species distribution: S. Europe, but rare in the west. [Al Bl Bu Co Cr Gr It Ju Rs (K) Sa Si Tu (Br)]. It is a Mediterranean species with distribution in Greece from the islands to the mainland. In the study area it occurs in Achaia, Elis, Aetolia and the Ionian Islands. They are wild, abundant and with very good populations. It can be collected from nature without risks of deterioration. • Medicinal uses: This plant is an aromatic, expectorant, stimulant herb that controls bleeding and has antibiotic effects. It is used internally in the treatment of catarrh and diarrhoea and as an emmenagogue. The leaves are harvested in late spring and early summer and can be dried for later use, or the resin extracted from them. Both the plant and the oleoresin are used for a variety of skin infections, ulcers and even tumors. Cistus incanus and Cistus monsepaliensis have similar medicinal properties. • Phytochemical composition: The essential oil of the plant contains characteristic labdane-type diterpenes, whereas flavonoids have been determined in the herbal. 35 Colchicum bivonae Guss. Cat. Pl. Boccad. 72 (1821) • Family: Colchicaceae. • Synonyms: Colchicum autumnale var. bivonae (Guss.) Fiori, Colchicum amabile Heldr., Colchicum bowlesianum B. L. Burtt., Colchicum busambarense Lojac., Colchicum latifolium Sm., Colchicum pulchrum Herb. ex Baker, Colchicum sibthorpii Baker, Colchicum tuntasium Heldr., Colchicum variegatum Biv., nom. illeg., Colchicum variopictum Janka. • Traditional English: It commonly known as Autumn crocus, Meadow saffron, Naked lad, Wonder bulb, Naked boy, Mysteria etc. It is a flower that resembles the true crocuses, but blooms in autumn. (This is not a reliable distinction, however, since many true crocuses flower in autumn.) The name “Naked lady” comes from the fact that the flowers emerge from the ground long after the leaves have died back. 36 • Systematic description: Corm 2,5-5 x 2,5-4 cm, ovoid; tunic dark brown, coriaceous or subcoriaceous, with a long neck. Leaves (4-)5-9, up to 25 cm x 8-13 mm, developing after anthesis, linear-lanceolate to broadly lanceolate, subacute to obtuse, glabrous. Flowers 1-6; perianth-segments (40-)55-65 x 8-20 mm, strongly tessellated, pale to deep pinkish-purple, sometimes white at the base, oblong to broadly elliptical, obtuse to acute. Filaments 10-30 mm; anthers (5-)7-8(-11) mm, purplish-black or -brown; pollen yellow. Styles curved at the apex; stigmas long-decurrent. Capsule c. 40 mm, oblong. Flowering August to October (-November). 2n = 36, 54, 90. • Geographical distribution: C. Mediterranean region and S. part of Balkan peninsula. [AE(G) Bu Gr It Ju Sa Si Tu(AE)]. In Greece, it found in most regions of the country, except Crete, Cyclades and North Aegean. In the study area it is found in the mountains of Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia and Ionian islands. • Medicinal uses: During the last centuries corms and seeds of C. bivonae were used in the treatment of asthma, rheumatism, dysentery and acute gout. Colchicum bivonae Guss.: Representative flowers, strongly tessellated. • Phytochemical composition: The bulb-like corms of Colchicum bivonae contain characteristic alkaloids, the colchicinoids. Colchicine has been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of gout and familial Mediterranean fever and has a narrow therapeutic index. Colchicine is also used in plant breeding to produce polyploid strains. Cornus mas L. Sp. Pl.: 117. 1753 • Family: Cornaceae. • Synonyms: Macrocarpium mas (L.) Nakai, Cornus erythrocarpa St.-Lag., Cornus flava Steud., Cornus homerica Bubani, Cornus mascula L., Cornus nudiflora Dumort., Cornus praecox Stokes, Cornus vernalis Salisb., Eukrania mascula (L.) Merr., Cornus mas var. oblongifolia Jovan. • Traditional English: Cornelian cherry, European cornel or Dogwood. • Systematic description: Shrub or small tree up to 8 m, with greenish- yellow twigs. Leaves 4-10 cm ovate or elliptical, acute or acuminate, dull gree beneath; veins 3-5 pairs. Bracts 6-10 x 3-6 mm, deciduous; pedicel about equaling bracts. Petals 2-2,5 mm, yellow. Fruit 1215 mm, red. Cornus mas L.: Branch with fruits. • Geographical distribution: C. & S.E. Europe, extending to C. Italy and C. France; cultivated for ornament and for the edile fruit. [Al Au Be Bu Cz Ga Ge Gr He Hu It Ju Rm Rs (W,K) Tu (Br)]. In Greece, it is found in mainland. In the study area it is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia. • Medicinal uses: The bark and the fruit are astringent, febrifuge and nutritive. The astringent fruit is a good treatment for bowel complaints and fevers, whilst it is also used in the treatment of cholera. The fruits and the flowers are used in the treatment of diarrhea. • Phytochemical composition: Tannins are present in high concentrations. The fruits are also rich in anthocyanins and ursolic acid. 37 Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Fl. Austriac. 3: 50. 1775 • Family: Rosaceae. • Synonyms: Mespilus monogyna (Jacq.) All., Oxyacantha monogyna (Jacq.) M. Roem., Crataegus oxyacantha subsp. monogyna (Jacq.) Syme, Mespilus oxyacantha subsp. monogyna (Jacq.) Čelak. • Traditional English: common hawthorn, may, mayblossom, maythorn, quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw, single-seeded hawthorn. • Systematic description: Shrub or small tree up to 10 m; spines 7-20 mm. Leaves obovate to rhombic, cuneate, discolorous; lobes 3-7, oblong, acute or subobtuse, entire or sparsely toothed near the apex, extending Ύ of the way to the midrib, the sinuses usually open and deep; stipules entire, lanceolate-subulate. Flowers 8-15 mm in diameter. Style 1. Fruit 6-10 mm, dark or bright red, crowned by deflexed sepals which are usually slightly longer than wide; pyrene 1. • Geographical distribution: Almost throughout Europe except the northern and eastern margins. [All except Az Fa Is Rs (N, B, E)Sb]. 38 • Medicinal uses: Hawthorn is a recognized tonic for the heart and is beneficial in treating many cardiac disorders, including tachycardia, arrhythmia, congestive heart failure, and degenerative heart disease. Clinical studies provide evidence for this use. The herb mildly stimulates the heart to pump slightly faster, which decreases the amount of stress placed on the heart. It also dilates the arteries to improve blood flow throughout the body, and strengthens the heart muscle. These activities aid in the treatment of atherosclerosis and regulate blood pressure. Crataegus monogyna can increase low blood pressure to a normal rate and lower high blood pressure to eliminate hypertension. The herb can relieve angina by reducing the lactic acid which is responsible for pain in the heart muscle. It also decreases the amount of cholesterol believed to be responsible for heart disease. Hawthorn has also been used as an antispasmodic agent in the treatment of asthma, diarrhoea, gall bladder disease and uterine contractions, and as a sedative for the treatment of insomnia. Its astringent properties make it beneficial in the treatment of edema, kidney disorders, and sore throats. Hawthorn has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat digestive difficulties such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea as well as cardiovas- Crataegus monogyna Jacq.: Branches with fruits. cular disorders. Crataegus monogyna is believed to help the digestion of meat and fats by stimulating the production of the enzymes and bile required to digest them. When used in traditional Chinese medicine, the herb is generally taken as an extract or ground into a powder and ingested in pill form. • Phytochemical composition: The major constituents are flavonoids (rutin, hyperoside, vitexin, vitexin-2’’ rhamnoside, acetylvitexin-2’’ rhamnoside) and related proanthocyanidins. In the inflorescence, flavonol glycosides, mainly in the form of hyperoside, spiraeoside and rutin, are present. The primary flavonoid derivatives in the leaves are epi-catechin (epi-catechol) and/or catechin (catechol), and the related procyanidins formed during condensation of 2–8 monomeric units of the above catechins, together with oligomeric procyanidins. The presence of simple phenolic acids (e.g. chlorogenic and caffeic acids) has also been reported. Of the non-phenolic constituents, pentacyclic triterpenes (e.g. ursolic and oleanolic acids) and the 2-α-hydroxy derivative of oleanolic acid, known as crataegolic acid, are among the characteristic components. Crocus boryi J. Gay Bull. Sci. Nat. Géol. 25: 320. 1831 • Family: Iridaceae. • Synonyms: Crocus boryanus Herb., nom. superfl., Crocus laevigatus subsp. boryi (J. Gay) K. Richt., Crocus boryanus var. cephalonensis Herb., Crocus laevigatus var. boryi (J. Gay) Nyman, Crocus cretensis Körn., Crocus ionicus Herb., Crocus marathonisius Heldr., Crocus boryi subsp. cretensis (Körn.) Nyman. • Traditional English: Crocus. • Systematic description: Corm ovoid 0,8-2 cm diam; tunics softly papery, splitting at base into many longitudinal parallel fibres. Cataphylls 3-4, membranous, white, veined green at apex. Leaves 3-9, shorter than to much exceeding flower at anthesis, 1-3,5 mm wide, dark green, glabrous or sparsely ciliate. Prophyll absent. Bract and bracteole ± equal, greenish at apex. Flowers autumnal, 1-4, creamy-white, sometimes lightly veined or suffused purple on outside; throat of flower deep yellow, glabrous or slightly papilla e. Perianth tube 5-15 cm, white or rarely veined purple; segments elliptic or obovate, (1,5-)2,5-5 x 0,6-2,3 mm, obtuse to rounded. Filaments 3-7 mm, yellow, papillose; anthers 7-17 mm, white. Style divided into many lender, spreading, orange or reddish branches. Capsule subglobose to broadly ellipsoid, 0,5-1 x 0,5-0,6 cm. Seed subglobose, c. 3 mm diam., reddish-brown, rugose. • Geographical distribution: S. & W. Greece, from Kerkira (Ionian islands) downwards, south to Peloponnisos and SE Crete, S. Aegean region. [Cr Gr. : Olive-groves, stony hillsides and scrub]. • Medicinal uses: Same as those of saffron (C. sativus). Generally, by the constant use of different Crocus species, for thousands of years in medicine, more than 90 special uses have been recorded. Beneficial effects have been attributed to saffron against asthma, eye infections, disorders of the menstrual cycle of women, depression, aging and disorders of the circulatory system and has been used as an analgesic, calmative thrombolytic and Crocus boryi J. Gay: Representative flowers. abortifacient. Ancient Greeks used saffron for combating insomnia and the unpleasant symptoms of wine intoxication. Saffron was used as fragrance in baths and as an aphrodisiac. • Phytochemical composition: Styles contain crocins (apocarotenoids), flavonoids and essential oil which is rich in monoterpene aldehydes. • Other Crocus taxa with similar properties and actions which also exist in our study area are: Crocus cancellatus subsp. mazziaricus (S. Yugoslavia, Greece, S.and W. Turkey), Crocus niveus (S. Greece). 39 Cynara scolymus L. Sp. Pl.: 827. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Cynara cardunculus subsp. scolymus (L.) Hegi. • Traditional English: Artichoke. • Systematic description: Stems up to 200 cm, glabrescent; leaves up to 80 x 40 cm, soft, glabrescent above and greyish-tomentose beneath, with wide, unarmed or mucronulate segments; involucre 60-70 x 70-80 mm, the bracts fleshy, with a flattish apical appendage; appendage 15-40 x 12-35 mm, ovate to triangular, truncate, cuspidate or sinuate-truncate. • Geographical distribution: It is widely cultivated on a large scale in S., W. & C. Europe, and in gardens elsewhere, for the immature capitula, which are eaten as a vegetable (artichoke). [Au Be Co Cr Cz Ga Gr He Ho Hs It Ju Lu Rm Rs (W) Sa Si]. • Medicinal uses: It is used in medicine. It contains canarine, which is proved that decreases cholesterol and triglyceride levels in human body. It is proved that it stimulates the secretion of bile. It is also used for the treatment of liver failure and incomplete digestion. Furthermore, it is considered that it is effective for arteriosclerosis, rheumatism, skin irritation and faintness. 40 • Phytochemical composition: It is an important source of fibre, coper, magnesium, iron, vitamin K and C, vitamin B complex and potassium. It also contains flavonoids. Cynara scolymus L.: Habit. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 85. 1805 • Family: Poaceae. • Synonyms: Panicum dactylon L., Cynodon glabratus Steud., Dactylon officinale Vill. • Traditional English: Bermuda grass, Bermudagrass, Dubo, Dog’s tooth grass, Bahama grass, Devil’s grass, Couch grass, Indian doab, Arugampul, Grama, and Scutch grass. • Systematic description: Extensively creeping by stolons and scaly rhizomes; stems up to 30 cm. Leaves up to 6 cm, linear-lanceolate; ligule a ring of hairs. Spikes 1-5 cm. Spikelets 2 mm, subsessile on the flattened rhachis. Glumes linear-lanceolate, often purplish. Lemma naviculiform, sparingly villous on keel and margins. Rhachilla glabrous, prolonged. 2n = 36, 40. • Geographical distribution: W., S., S.E. & E.C. Europe. [Gr He Ho Hs Hu It Ju Lu Rm Rs (C, W, K, E) Sa Si Tu [Ge]. • Medicinal uses: Bermudagrass is reported to be alterative, anabolic, antiseptic, aperient, astringent, cyanogenetic, demulcent, depurative, diuretic, emollient, sudorific, and vulnerary. A decoction of the root is used as a diuretic in the treatment of dropsy and secondary syphilis. An infusion of the root is used to stop bleeding from piles. The juice of the plant is astringent and is applied externally to fresh cuts and wounds, it is diuretic and is used in the treatment of dropsy and anasarca. When mixed with the powder of a clove (Syzygium aromaticum), it is used as an anthelmintic. Internally, it is used in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. It is also useful in the treatment of catarrhal ophthalmia. The leaf juice has also been used in the treatment of hysteria, epilepsy and insanity. The plant is a folk remedy for anasarca, calculus, cancer, carbuncles, convulsions, cough, cramps, cystitis, diarrhoea, dropsy, dysentery, epilepsy, headache, haemorrhage, hypertension, hysteria, insanity, kidneys, laxative, measles, rubella, snakebite, sores, stones, tumours, uro-genital disorders, warts, and wounds. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.: Habit. • Phytochemical composition: The herb contains triticina (3-8%), a polysaccharide like as inulina, mucilage (10%), polyalcohols, traces of essential oil and vanilloside, a glucoside of vanillin. 41 Cynoglossum officinale L. Sp. Pl.: 134. 1753 • Family: Boraginaceae. • Synonyms: Cynoglossum castellanum Pau, Cynoglossum officinale var. corsicum Brand. • Traditional English: Houndstongue, Houndstooth, Dog’s tongue (the name Houndstongue comes from the belief that it could ward off dog attacks if a leaf was worn in the shoe), Gypsy flower. The Latin comes from a corruption of the Greek words ‘kynos’ meaning dog and ‘glossa’ meaning tongue. • Systematic description: Biennial. Stems (20-)3060(-90) cm, hirsute. Cauline leaves oblong to lanceolate, the lower shortly petiolate, the middle (10-)16-25(-30) mm wide, sessile to amplexicaul, shortly and softly hairy on both surfaces. Cymes ebracteate (rarely bracteate at base). Calyx-lobes up to4 mm, ovate, hirsute. Corolla 5-6 mm, dull purple; tube cylindrical; limb shorter than tube. Stamens inserted in upper part of tube. Nutlets 5-8 mm in diameter, ovoid, with a distinct border; external face densely glochidiate. 2n = 24, 48. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe except the extreme north and the extreme south. [Al Au Be Br Bu Co Cz Da Fe Ga Ge Gr Hb He Ho Hs Hu It Ju No Po Rm Rs (B, C, W, K, E) Sa Su]. 42 • Medicinal uses: It has a long history of use as a medicinal herb, though it is rarely used in modern herbalism. The leaves contain allantoin, a highly effective agent that speeds up the healing process in the body. The plant has been used internally in the treatment of coughs and diarrhoea, though it is now mainly used externally as a poultice on piles, wounds, minor injuries, bites and ulcers. Caution should be applied, however, since narcotic effects result from large doses taken internally and the plant is potentially carcinogenic (though it has also been used in the treatment of cancer). The leaves and roots are analgesic, antihaemorrhoidal, antispasmodic, astringent, digestive, emollient and slightly narcotic. The plant contains the alkaloids cynoglossine and consolidin, Cynoglossum officinale L.: Upper part of the plant showing inflorescences. which are used medicinally to relieve pain. They depress the central nervous system and are also potentially carcinogenic. • Phytochemical composition: The plant is rich in alkaloids. The aerial parts may contain up to 1,5% pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Allantoin is also present in the aerial parts. Digitalis grandiflora Mill. Gard. Dict., ed. 8: no. 4, Corr. 1768 • Family: Scrophulariaceae. • Synonyms: Digitalis ambigua Murray. • Traditional English: Large Yellow Foxglove. • Systematic description: Biennial to perennial (30-) 60-100 cm. Leaves 70-250 x 20-60 mm, ovate-lanceolate, finely serrate, usually glabrous and shining green above, sparsely pubescent beneath. Calyx-lobes lanceolate, acute. Corolla 40-50 mm, yellow. 2n = 56. • Geographical distribution: Woods, E. & C. Europe, northwards to Estonia and southwards to N. Greece, and extending westwards to Belgium and S.C. France. [Al Au Be Bu Cz Ga Ge Gr He Hu It Ju Po Rm Rs (B, C, W, E) Tu]. In the study area, occurs in canyons and roadsides of 7001.400 m. It occurs mainly in Ioannina and Arta. • Medicinal uses: It has heart-revitalizing and nerverevitalizing properties. Due to its constitutes, it is effective for the treatment of heart patients. Nowadays, the medication “digoxin” comes in tablets and it is prescribed widely in cases of heart failure and arrhythmias. Leaves are gathered before flowering and used for dispensing heart-revitalizing drugs. In recent years, research conducted for the anticancer properties of Foxglove. • Phytochemical composition: Foxglove leaves consist of glycosides, such as digitalin, digitoxin, etc. They, also, contain saponins, flavonoids, acids, choline etc. The hole plant contains 63 different glycosides which classify in 5 groups. Digitalis grandiflora Mill.: Habit. 43 Dracunculus vulgaris Schott in Schott & Endlicher, Melet. Bot.: 17. 1832 • Family: Araceae. • Synonyms: Arum dracunculus L., Aron dracunculum (L.) St.-Lag., Dracunculus dracunculus (L.) Voss, des. inval., Dracunculus spadiceus Raf., nom. illeg., Arum guttatum Salisb., Dracunculus creticus Schott, Dracunculus major Garsault, des. inval., Dracunculus polyphyllus Blume, nom. illeg. • Traditional English: Dragon Arum, Black Arum, Voodoo Lily, Snake Lily, Stink Lily, Black Dragon, Black Lily, Dragonwort, Ragons. • Systematic description: Plant up to 100 cm. Leaves 15-20 x 25-35 cm, more or less reniform in outline; segments 9-15, elliptical to oblong-lanceolate, acute; petiole with long, wide sheathing base, spotted with dark purple, concealing base of scape so as to make some leaves appear cauline. Spathe 20-40(-55) cm, glabrous, with abaxial surface greenish and adaxial dark brownish-purple; upper part lanceolate, erect; margins undulate. Spadix with male and female zones almost contiguous; sterile flowers few, sometimes absent; appendix with short, pale stalk, the remainder dark purple. Berry orange-red. 2n = 32. • Geographical distribution: E. & C. Mediterranean region, extending to S. Bulgaria; cultivated as a curiosity and occasionally naturalized elsewhere. [?Al Bu Co Cr Gr It Ju Sa Si (Ga ?Hs Lu)]. • Medicinal uses: Various parts of the plant had been 44 employed since antiquity as an antidote for snakebite. Whoever rubbed the root into his hands supposedly was protected against snake-bite, and cheese wrapped in aron was protected from rotting. The crushed leaves of the aron were used as compresses on wounds; from which later the meaning of “break root”, i.e. for treatment and healing fractures arose. The root “juice” (with oil) was instilled into the ears of those with earache. The tubers have been used externally in the treatment of rheumatism. The aron root was described in Dioscorides Dracunculus vulgaris Schott : Habit. as an expectorant in decocted form or fresh, dried or broken up. Repeatedly, it was used as a remedy against lung diseases, which earned it the name “lung herb”. Dioscorides records the abortifacient properties of Dracunculus roots and many reports exist for its use against malignancies. The fruits with the seeds are used internally in the treatment of hemorrhoids, although the toxic properties are well recognised. • Phytochemical composition: Leaves and tubers of the Dracunculus genus contain saponins and conicine alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids and coumarins. Odd phenyl fatty acids have been determined in seeds. Drimia numidica (Jord. & Fourr.) J.C. Manning & Goldblatt Endiburg J. Bot. 60: 533-568 (2004) • Family: Hyacinthaceae. • Synonyms: Urginea maritima(L.) Baker, Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn, Scilla maritima L. • Traditional English: Quill, Sea squill, Sea onion, Maritime squill, Red squill. • Systematic description: Bulb 5-15 cm in diameter. Stem 50-150 cm. Leaves 30-100 cm x 30-100 mm, long-lanceolate, entire, appearing before the flowers. Inflorescence a long, dense raceme with more than 50 flowers; bracts subulate, often caducous, shorter than the pedicels; pedicels 10-30 mm, more or less erect. Perianth-segments 6-8 mm, oblong, whitish, with a green or purple mid-vein. Anthers c. 2,5 mm. Style equalling the stamens. 2n = 20, 30, 40, 60, 64. • Geographical distribution: Maritime sands and dry, rocky ground. Mediterranean region, Portugal. [Al Bl Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si]. • Medicinal uses: The bulb has been widely used by herbalists, mainly for its effect upon the heart and for its stimulating, expectorant and diuretic properties. The fresh bulb is slightly more active medicinally than the dried bulb, but it also contains a viscid acrid juice that can cause skin inflammations. The dried bulb is cardiotonic, strongly diuretic, emetic when taken in large doses and expectorant. It is used internally in the treatment of bronchitis, bronchitic asthma, whooping cough and oedema and is a potential substitute for foxglove in aiding a failing heart. The bulb is harvested in the autumn, sliced transversally and dried for later use. Externally, the bulb has been used in the treatment of dandruff and seborrhea. • Phytochemical composition: It contains mucilage (4-11%), free flavonoids, glycosylat, terpenes and a mixture of cardiac glucosides (bufadienolidi). Drimia numidica (Jord. & Fourr.) J.C. Manning & Goldblatt: Close up to inflorescence. 45 Ephedra nebrodensis Guss. subsp. procera (Fischer & C.A. Meyer) K. Richter Pl. Eur. 1: 8. 1890 • Family: Ephedraceae. • Synonyms: Ephedra procera C. A. Mey., Ephedra nebrodensis subsp. procera (C. A. Mey.) K. Richt., Ephedra major var. procera (C. A. Mey.) Hayek, Ephedra nebrodensis var. procera (C. A. Mey.) Stapf, Ephedra procera var. chrysocarpa C. A. Mey., Ephedra procera var. erythrocarpa C. A. Mey. • Traditional English: Ephedra. • Systematic description: Dioecious; shrub up to 2 m, with 1 trunk-like stem; twigs 0,7-1(-1,2) mm wide. Male strobilus sessile, globose, with 2-4 pairs of flowers; flowers with 6-8 microsporangia. Female strobilus shortly stipitate, 1-flowered. Tube of integument 0,6-1 mm, straight. Fruit 1-seeded, the seed emergent. Twigs smooth. Female strobilus with innermost bracts connate for c. ½ their length. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region. Mountain regions of the southern Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Cyprus, the Caucasus, Iran and the Himalaya. Mountains of Greece and S. Jugoslavia. It is native in our country and spreads in the Greek mountains. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaia and Ilia. 46 • Medicinal uses: Members of this genus contain pharmacologically active alkaloids (notably ephedrine) and they are widely used in preparations for the treatment of asthma and catarrh. The whole plant can be used at much lower concentrations than the isolated constituents - unlike using the isolated ephedrine, using the whole plant rarely gives rise to side-effects. The stems are a pungent, bitter, warm herb that dilates the bronchial vessels whilst stimulating the heart and central nervous system. The stems are also diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, hypertensive, nervine, pectoral, tonic, vasoconstrictor and vasodilator. They are used internally in the treatment of asthma, hay fever and allergic complaints. They are also combined with a number of other herbs and used in treating a wide range of complaints. Ephedrine-con- Ephedra nebrodensis Guss. subsp. Procera: Branches with fruits. taining herbs have been used in performance-boosting supplements and in supplements for slimming, but this use is forbidden for a decade now. • Phytochemical composition: Alkaloids are the principal bioactive components, with ephedrine being the major one. Flavonoids, phenolic glycosides are also present in the herb. • Other Ephedra taxa with similar properties and actions: Ephedra distachya L. (S. Europe to N. Asia), Ephedra foeminea Forssk. (E. Mediterranean region), Ephedra major Host. (Mediterranean region). Eryngium amethystinum L. Sp. Pl.: 233. 1753 • Family: Apiaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Blue Eryngo, Sea-Holly. • Systematic description: Perennial; stems 20-40 cm, erect. Basal leaves usually persistent, coriaceous; lamina 10-15 cm, obovate, palmatisect above and pinnatisect below, the segments 2- or 3-pinnatisect with linear-lanceolate, spinescent-serrate segments; petiole broadly winged. Inflorescence usually bluish, cylindrical to corymbiform with usually numerous pedunculate, globose or ovoid capitula 1-2 cm. Bracts 2-5 cm, 5-9 linear-lanceolate, with 1-4 pairs of spines; bracteoles entire or 3-cuspidate. Sepals 1,5-2,5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, shortly aristate, Fruit sparsely scaly. Eryngium amethystinum L.: Habit. • Geographical distribution: Dry places. Balkan peninsula and Aegean region; Italy and Sicilia. [Al ? Bu Cr Gr It Ju Si]. • Medicinal uses: It is used as a diuretic, a stimulant, and an appetizer owing to its essential oils, and bioactive compounds. • Phytochemical composition: The root contains monoterpenes, saponins, phenolics, acetylenes and other substances. 47 Euphorbia characias L. subsp. wulfenii (W. D. J. Koch) Radcl.-Sm., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 79: 55. 1968 • Family: Euphorbiaceae. • Synonyms: Euphorbia wulfenii Hoppe ex W. D. J. Koch, Tithymalus wulfenii (Hoppe ex W. D. J. Koch) Soják, Euphorbia lycia Boiss., Euphorbia melapetala Gasp. ex Guss., Euphorbia messeniaca Heldr. ex Halácsy, nom. illeg., Euphorbia sibthorpii Boiss., Tithymalus melapetalus (Gasp. ex Guss.) Klotzsch & Garcke, Tithymalus sibthorpii (Boiss.) Soják. • Traditional English: Mediterranean spurge. Euphorbias have been given the common name “spurge” from the latin “expurgare”. This refers to their historical medicinal use as a purgative. Another theory for the etymology says that genus Euphorbia and indeed family Euphorbiaceae were named in honour of a Greek physician to King Juba II of Mauritania called Euphorbus believed to have used Euphorbia resinifera latex to cure ailments. • Systematic description: Densely tomentose, rarely glabrescent, glaucous, caespitose perennial, sometimes with biennial stems up to 180 cm, with 13-30(-40) axillary rays. Leaves (14-)30-130 x 4-10(-17) mm, linear to oblanceolate or occasionally obovate, entire; those of the first year’s growth usually larger than those of the second. Ray-leaves like the upper cauline. Raylet-leaves suborbicular-deltate, usually connate in pairs at the base. Rays 10-20, usually twice, but up to 4 times dichotomous. Glands variable. Capsule 4-7 x 5-6 mm, deeply sulcate, smooth, densely villous. Seeds 2,5-3,8 mm, ovoid, silver-grey. Stems up to 180 cm; glands yellowish, with long horns. 48 • Geographical distribution: E. Mediterranean region. Dry, fairly open ground. It is native in our country with distribution in mainland Greece and islands. In study area, it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aitoloakarnania, Kefalonia, and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Euphorbia genus is most commonly used to treat bronchitis and asthma-related problems. It is also believed to provide relief from symptoms associated with colds and flu. The leaves of euphorbia are used in treating skin irritations. The milky sap, while poisonous, has been used as a traditional plant medicine to treat skin issues such as warts and tumors. An extract made from the crushed euphorbia flower is believed to heal eye infections and inflammations like conjunctivitis. The plant is believed to promote healing in cases of dengue fever by facilitating the production of Euphorbia characias L. subsp. wulfenii: Habit of the plant. platelets and it is used to treat snakebites. Moreover, it is also known for its anthelmintic properties, and it can be used to get rid of worms and other parasitic organisms. Euphorbia is also considered to boost breast milk production in lactating mothers. The plant can be used in the treatment of venereal diseases like gonorrhea while, it has found use in the treatment of impotency, premature ejaculation, and other sexual disorders. The root of euphorbia can be made into a paste and used for healing stomach pain. However, it should be consumed only in recommended doses, otherwise, it can induce vomiting. Euphorbia is also said to possess antiviral properties, and it has been used in the treatment of dysentery and to alleviate the symptoms of diarrhea. • Phytochemical composition: Almost all classes of phytochemical compounds have been found in Euphorbia plant. In addition to widespread flavonoids and tannins, Euphorbia characias affords a wide variety of terpenoids; diterpenoids are abundant in latex and roots. Triterpenoids and phytosterols have, also, been determined. Latex contains complex mixtures of cerebrosides, lectins with haemagglutinating activity, and various enzymes such as peroxidase, amine oxidases, lipolytic enzymes, metallo-protein nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase. The essential oil contains more than 60 different compounds.. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Gard. Dict., ed. 8: no. 1. 1768 • Family: Apiaceae/ Umbeliferae. • Synonyms: Anethum piperitum Ucria, Foeniculum azoricum Mill., Foeniculum dulce Mill., Foeniculum giganteum Lojac., Foeniculum subinodorum Maire & al., Foeniculum vulgare subsp. capillaceum Holmboe, Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum (Ucria) Cout., Foeniculum vulgare subsp. subinodorum (Maire & al.) Ibn Tattou, Foeniculum vulgare var. azoricum (Mill.) Thell. • Traditional English: Fennel. The word “fennel” developed from the Middle English fenel or fenyl. This came from the Old English fenol or finol, which in turn came from the Latin feniculum or foeniculum, the diminutive of fenum or faenum, meaning “hay”. The Latin word for the plant was ferula, which is now used as the genus name of a related plant. As Old English finule, it is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century. • Systematic description: Glabrous, glaucous perennial or biennial up to 250 cm. Stem striate, shiny, developing a small hollow when old. Leaves more or less triangular in outline; lobes usually 5-50 mm, filiform, acuminate, cartilaginous at apex, usually widely spaced and not all lying in one plane; petioles of upper leaves usually 3-6 cm. Rays 4-30. Bracts and bracteoles usually absent. Fruit 4-10,5 mm, ovoid-oblong; lateral ridges scarcely more prominent than dorsal. • Geographical distribution: It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized in many parts of the world. Most of Europe, except the north, but probably native only in the south and southwest. [Al Az Bl *Br Bu Co Cr Ga Gr *Hb Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si Tu (Au Be Cz Ge He Ho Hu Po Rm Rs -C, W, E, K)]. • Medicinal uses: The medicinal use of fennel is largely due to antispasmodic, secretolytic, secretomotor and antibacterial effects of its essential oil. The essential oil obtained by steam distillation from the dry ripe fruits is also used. Fennel oil contains a high percentage of anethole, which can explain some of its medicinal effects: it, or its polymers, acts as phytoestrogens. The European Medicines Agency (EMA), recognising its long use as a phytomedicine, allows the use Foeniculum vulgare: Seeds. of bitter fennel fruits and sweet fennel fruits as traditional herbal medicinal products for symptomatic treatment 1) of mild, spasmodic gastrointestinal complaints including bloating and flatulence, and 2) of minor spasms associated with menstrual periods, and 3) as an expectorant in cough associated with cold. However, EMA states that the essential oil of bitter fennel can be used only as an expectorant in cough associated with cold. • Phytochemical composition: Bitter fennel fruits is characterized by a content of essential oil. The oil in bitter fennel fruits has been reported to contain not less than 60% anethole and 15% fenchone and not more than 6% estragole, whereas in sweet fennel fruits the oil contains not less than 80% anethole and not more than 7.5% fenchone and 10% estragole (European Pharmacopoeia, 1/2005:825). Crushed or powdered fennel fruits gradually lose their volatile constituents upon aging. The fennel fruits also contain water-soluble glycosides of monoterpenoid and aromatic compounds as well as, among other substances, proteins, cellulose, lignin, pectins, triglycerides, wax esters, phospholipids, phytosterols (e.g. beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol), flavonoids, hydroxycoumarins, furanocoumarins and vitamins (tocopherol and tocotrienol). 49 Fumaria officinalis L. subsp. officinalis Sp. Pl. : 700. 1753 • Family: Fumariaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Fumitory, Earth smoke. • Systematic description: Annual herbaceous plant with bitter taste, short stems with 10-25 cm of length, green color and frail consistence. Leaf are alternate, thin, very divided, without stipule and long petiole. Opposite at leaf there are the inflorescences, raceme, that is composed of 20-30 small flowers with intense pink colour. The flower has calyx with two sepals toothed, that are shorter than corolla and fall quickly. Corolla is composed by 4 petals, two internal petals are welded together at the apex, the external petals are free and one upper has a posterior spur, one lower is simple. Fruits are achenes with one seed. • Geographical distribution: Cosmopolitan species, with distribution in Mediterranean region. 50 • Medicinal uses: Fumitory has been highly valued since at least Roman times for its tonic and blood cleansing effect upon the body. It is particularly valuable in the treatment of all visceral obstructions, particularly those of the liver, in scorbutic affections and in troublesome eruptive diseases of the skin, especially eczema (for which it can be taken internally and externally). The herb is antispasmodic, aperient, cholagogue, slightly diaphoretic, mildly diuretic, laxative and weakly tonic. The plant is harvested as flowering begins in the summer and can be used fresh or can be dried for later use. Some caution should be exercised in the use of this herb since excess doses cause hypnotic and sedative effects, especially if it is taken for more than about 8 days. • Phytochemical composition: It contains alkaloids, fumaric acid, mucilage, mineral salts and vitamins. . Fumaria officinalis L. subsp. officinalis: Inflorescences. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Sp. Pl.: 742. 1753 • Family: Leguminasae. • Synonyms: Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Waldst. & Kit. (provisional), Glycyrrhiza hirsuta Pall., Glycyrrhiza pallida Boiss. & Noë, Glycyrrhiza violacea Boiss. & Noë, Glycyrrhiza glabra subsp. glandulifera (Waldst. & Kit.) Ponert. • Traditional English: Liquorice or licorice, licorice root, sweet root. The word “liquorice”/“licorice” is derived from the Greek γλυκύρριζα, meaning “sweet root”, the name provided by Dioscorides. • Systematic description: Stem 50-100 cm. Stem and petioles pubescent, sometimes scabrid. Leaflets 9-17, 20-40(-55) mm, elliptical, ovate or oblong, obtuse, sometimes mucronate, often viscid. Racemes exceeded by their subtending leaves at least at anthesis, lax, elongate. Corolla 8-12 mm. Legume up to 30 mm, linear-oblong, compressed, straight, glabrous or glandular-setose, the sutures straight. Seeds (2-)3-5. • Geographical distribution: Dry open habitats. S. & E. Europe. Cultivated as a source of liquorice and frequently naturalized. [Al Bu Cr *Ga Gr *Hs It Ju Rm Rs (C, W, K, E) Sa Si Tu (Au Cz He Hu Lu)]. In our country it is native and spread in mainland and the islands. In the study area it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aetolia, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Liquorice presents demulcent and expectorant properties for dissolving and facilitating the discharge of mucus in catarrhs and for upper respiratory tract diseases and is currently employed in cough preparations. Ulcer-healing properties, anti-inflammatory and mild laxative activities have been documented. It shows mineralocorticoid properties due to the presence of glycyrrhizinic acid and its metabolite glycyrrhetinic acid, which is an inhibitor of cortisol metabolism. Licorice possesses estrogen activity, used to stabilize menstrual cycle, and also know widely as a good remedy for lungs and spleen complaints. It is combined with other herbs Glycyrrhiza glabra L.: Habit. in treating coughs, colds, sore throat, asthma, stomach and duodenal ulcers, hepatitis, hysteria, food poisoning, hypoglycemia, bronchitis, colitis, diverticulitis, gastritis, some of stress related disorders, and nausea. The use of deglycyrrhized liquorice extract preparations in apthous, stomatitis (oral ulcers) is also reported. Useful applications have been described in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. • Phytochemical composition: Liquorice root contains triterpenoid saponins (4–20%), mostly glycyrrhizin, a mixture of potassium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizic acid (also known as glycyrrhizic or glycyrrhizinic acid and a glycoside of glycyrrhetinic acid). More than 300 flavonoids have been isolated from Glycyrrhiza species; they are responsible for the yellow colour of liquorice. It also contains coumarins, phenolic glycosides, gums, etc. 51 Humulus lupulus L. Sp. Pl.: 1028. 1753 • Family: Cannabaceae. • Synonyms: Lupulus humulus, Cannabis lupulus, Humulus vulgaris, Humulus americanus, Humulus volubilis, Lupulus amarus. • Traditional English: Hop, Common hop. The species name lupulus is the diminutive of lupus (wolf) which refers to the mistaken idea that hop tendrils strangle plants. • Systematic description: Stems up to 6m, rough with deflexed hairs. Leaves opposite, broadly ovate- cordate, usually deeply 3- to 5-loded and coarsely dentate; lobes acuminate. Male flowers c. 5mm in diameter. Female inflorescence 15-20mm; flowers subtended by persistent ovate, acute, pale green bracts. Cone-like infructescence c. 30mm. 2n = 20. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe. [All except Az Bl Cr Fa Is Sb]. In our country it is mainly found in northern Greece and sporadically in other regions. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaia and Ilia. 52 • Medicinal uses: Hops have a long and proven history of medicinal use, where they are employed mainly for their soothing, sedative, tonic and calming effect on the body and the mind. Their strongly bitter flavour largely accounts for their ability to strengthen and stimulate the digestion, increasing gastric and other secretions. The female fruiting body is anodyne, antiseptic, antispasmodic, diuretic, febrifuge, hypnotic, nervine, sedative, stomachic and tonic. Hop flowers are much used as an infusion or can also be used to stuff pillows where the weight of the head will release the volatile oils. The fruit is also applied externally as a poultice to ulcers, boils, painful swellings etc, it is said to remedy painful tumors. The female flowering heads are harvested in the autumn and can be used fresh or dried. A cataplasm of the leaf is said to remedy cold tumours. The European Medicines Agency has approved hops as a traditional herbal medicinal product for relief of mild symptoms of mental stress and to aid sleep, exclusively based on long standing use in Europe. Humulus lupulus L.: Habit. • Phytochemical composition: The oleo-resin (3% - 20%) consists of various prenylated phloroglucinol derivatives called “bitter acids”. They are classified either as “α-acids” or “β-acids”. The α-acids are regarded as the most important constituents in determining the quality of hops. They contribute to foam stability as well as imparting antibacterial properties and do not have a bitter taste; their isomers which are formed under a variety of conditions are bitter. The essential oil (0,5-1,5%) consists mainly of simple oxidized alkanes, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. In terms of their traditional economic value, the volatile oil and bitter acids comprise the most significant classes produced by hops. A third class of compounds consists of flavonoids (0,5-1,5%). The principle phytoestrogen from hops is the (1:1) racemate of 8-prenylnaringenin or hopein. Other constituents of hops include amino acids and proteins (15%), polysaccharides (50-60%), minerals, phenolic acids such as chlorogenic and caffeic acids, lipids and condensed tannins (2-4%). Hypericum perforatum L. subsp. perforatum Sp. Pl.: 785. 1753 • Family: Hypericacae. • Synonyms: Hypericum noeanum Boiss., Hypericum plasonii Formánek. • Traditional English: St. John’s Wort. “Wort” in old English means “root “. Other common English names are Goatweed, Tiptonweed, Amber, Rose of Sharon, Aaron’s beard, and Jerusalem Star. • Systematic description: Stems 10-100 cm, erect from a decumbent, rooting base, 2-lined. Leaves (5-)8-30(-35) mm, ovate to linear, sessile or subsessile, with obscurely reticulate venation and with numerous large translucent dots. Sepals lanceolate or oblong to linear, acute to acuminate or shortly aristate, usually entire, without or with a few superficial black dots. Petals with a few marginal black dots, sometimes also with superficial black dots or streaks. Capsule with dorsal vittae and lateral, oblique vittae or vesicles. 2n = 32 (?.48). • Geographical distribution: Throughout Europe except extreme north. [All except Fa Is Sb]. • Medicinal uses: The use of this species as a herbal remedy to treat a variety of internal and external ailments dates back to the time of the ancient Greeks. Indeed, Nicander and Dioscorides said it was good against sciatica and wound healing. Moreover, the wine made from it acts as an antipyretic. In older times an oil was made known as “oleum hypericum”. The decoction of the flowering tops of the plant often used successfully against chronic pulmonary catarrh, asthma, spit with thick phlegm and catarrh of the bladder. The infusion of the plant has also been used against dropsy a to induce diuresis. Teas and tinctures were used for the treatment of anxiety, depression, insomnia, migraines, and headaches. Furthermore, they have been used for various gastrointestinal disorders, such as gastritis, ulcers, dyspepsia, catarrhs of the gastrointestinal tract, nervous gastric diseases, abdominal pain, haemorrhoids and diarrhoea, and for hepatobiliary disorders, nocturnal enuresis, kidney stones, incontinence, as a diuretic, against the common cold, and worm infestations, as an emmenagogue, against diabetes and rheumatism. The herbal oil preparations have been a popular treatment for the treat- Hypericum perforatum L ssp. perforatum: Flowering branch. ment of wounds, burns, stomach ulcers, hemorrhoids and several inflammatory conditions. Recent research suggests the effectiveness of this herb or its phytochemicals in treating other ailments, including cancer, inflammation-related disorders, and bacterial and viral diseases, and as an antioxidant and neuroprotective agent. European Medicines Agency (EMA), recognising its long standing traditional use, allows its use as a herbal drug for the relief of temporary mental exhaustion, the symptomatic treatment of minor inflammations of the skin and as an aid in healing minor wounds and for mild gastrointestinal discomfort. Furthermore, based on the scientific data, EMA allows its use for mild to moderate depression. Hypericum empetrifolium Willd. subsp. empetrifolium has similar medicinal properties. • Phytochemical composition: The extract of the flower is a red liquid that contains many bioactive compounds such as: 0,06-4% naphtodianthrones (hypericin, pseudohypericin), 0,2-4% phloroglucinols (hyperforin, adhyperforin), 2-4% flavonoids (quercetin, hyperoside, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, campferol, myricetin, amentoflavone), 6-15% procyanidins and tannins (procyanidin, catechin, epicatechin polymers), phenylpropanes (caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid), and low (0,01-0,25%) amount of essential oil (terpenes, alcohols). 53 Iris germanica L. Sp. Pl. 38 (1753) • Family: Iridaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Purple Flag, German iris, Orrisroot, Tall Bearded German Iris, Bearded Iris. • Systematic description: Stems 40-90 cm, stout, with branches at least 5 cm long in the upper half, the lower flowers well-exserted from the subtending bract even in bud. Leaves 30-70 cm x 20-35 mm, somewhat glaucous, more or less straight. Flowers (3-)4(-5), bluish-violet, or white tinged with blue; pedicels very short; spathes 35-55 mm, scarcely exceeding the hypanthial tube, scarious in the upper 1/2-2/3, often tinged with purple. Hypanthial tube 17-25 mm. Falls 55-90 x 40-60 mm, cuneate-obovate, without a distinct claw. Standards 55-90 x 45-60 mm, broadly elliptical, with a short, wide claw. Seeds pyriform, rugose, reddish-brown. 2n = 36, 44, 48. • Geographical distribution: Widely cultivated for ornament and for the perfume extracted from its rhizome and naturalized in most of Europe except the north; of unknown and probably hybrid origin but perhaps native in the E. Mediterranean region. [Al Au Az Be Bl Br Bu Co Cr Cz Da Ga Ge *Gr He Hs Hu It Ju Lu Rm Rs (C, W, K, E) Sa Si]. 54 • Medicinal uses: The root is diuretic, emetic, expectorant and mildly purgative. Another report says that the juice of the fresh root is a strong purge of great efficiency in the treatment of dropsy. In the past, sections of the dried root have been given to teething babies to chew on, though this has been discontinued for hygienic reasons. • Phytochemical composition: It contains various isoflavonoids, which are considered that have soothing properties. It is referred that the rhizome contains 50% starch, mucus substances and an essential oil containing a ketone (irone) with violet scent.. Iris germanica L.: Habit. Juniperus oxycedrus L. Sp. Pl. 1038 (1753) • Family: Cupressaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Prickly Juniper, Prickly Cedar, Cade Juniper and Cade (from the French genévrier cade), Sharp Cedar. • Systematic description: Prostrate to erect shrub, or slender tree up to c. 10m; dioecious. Leaves patent, 10- 20 x 1,2- 3,0 mm; adaxial surface with two whitish stomatiferous bands; 1 external resin duct below the vascular bundle, 1-3(-4) layers of hypodermal cells. Fruit 6-16 mm diam., composed of 3(-6) scales, yellowishgreen at first, redish- brown when ripe min the second year, pedunculate. Seeds (1-)3. • Geographical distribution: widespread throughout Europe, mainly on mountains in the South. [All except Az Bl Cr Sb ?Tu]. It is abundant throughout the mountains of Greece. • Medicinal uses: The plant yields the essential oil ‘Oil of Cade’ by destructive distillation of the wood of this shrub. It is a dark, aromatic oil with a strong smoky smell which is used in some cosmetics and (traditional) skin treatment drugs, as well as incense. Oil is used externally in the treatment of skin diseases such as psoriasis and chronic eczema. It is a good parasiticide in cases of psora and favus. Also, it has antiseptic action. Species Juniperus communis L. has similar medicinal properties. • Phytochemical composition: The J. oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus berry oil was characterized by high contents of α-pinene (30-60%) and β-myrcene. Juniperus oxycedrus L. ssp. oxycedrus: Branch of female plant with female cones (juniper berries). 55 Laurus nobilis L. Sp. Pl. 369 (1753) • Family: Lauraceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: bay, bay laurel, true laurel, laurel tree, bay tree, sweet bay, Grecian laurel, or simply laurel. • Systematic description: shrub or small tree 2-20 m, with slender glabrous twings. Leaves 5-10 x 2-4(-7,5) cm, narrowly oblong-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, glabrous. Male flowers with 8-12 stamens, all or most with 2 glands at base; anthers opening by 2 valves. Female flowers with 2-4 staminodes. Fruit 10-15 mm, ovoid, black when ripe. 2n = 42. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region; cultivated elsewhere and naturalized in places. [Al *Bl Co Cr *Ga Gr *Hs It Ju *Lu Sa Tu - Rs (K)]. In our country, occurs in continental and insular Greece, mainly in Halkidiki, and in South Greece, especially in Pelion, Thassos, Kefalonia, Crete, etc. In the study area occurs sporadically in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaca. 56 • Μedicinal uses: Reportedly, both the leaves and the fruit of Laurus nobilis are often used for matters of women’s health, to increase fertility, for menstruation, contraception and speeding up childbirth. In Greece, a hot water extract of the leaf has served as an oral contraceptive. It is settling to the stomach and has a tonic effect, stimulating the appetite and the secretion of digestive juices. It is also used to treat bronchitis and influenza. The leaves have diuretic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, purgative, antiseptic, astringent, diaphoretic, emetic in large doses, narcotic, parasiticide properties. The fruit is antiseptic, aromatic, digestive, narcotic and stimulant. An infusion has been used to improve the appetite and as an emmenagogue. A fixed oil from the fruit is used externally to treat sprains, bruises etc, and is sometimes used as ear drops to relieve pain. The essential oil from the leaves has narcotic, antibacterial and fungicidal properties. In massage therapy, the essential oil of bay laurel is Laurus nobilis L.: Branches of female plant with fruits. reputed to alleviate arthritis and rheumatism. There is a traditional folk remedy for rashes caused by poison ivy, poison oak, and stinging nettle is a poultice soaked in boiled bay leaves. • Phytochemical composition: The leaves are rich in essential oil, which contains 1,8-cineole in great abundance. Other important phytochemicals in the leaves are polyphenols, especially flavonoids, and sesquiterpene lactones. Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas Sp. Pl.: 573. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Lavandula approximata Gand., Lavandula corsica Gand., Lavandula debeauxii Gand., Lavandula fascicularis Gand., Lavandula incana Salisb., Lavandula olbiensis Gand., Lavandula stoechadensis St.-Lag., Stoechas arabica Garsault, des. inval., Lavandula stoechas subsp. caesia Borja & Rivas Goday. • Traditional English: Bush lavender, French lavender (in Europe), Italian lavender, Spanish lavender (in America), Top lavender, Topped lavender, Wild lavender. The English word lavender is generally thought to be derived from Old French lavandre, ultimately from the Latin lavare (to wash), referring to the use of infusions of the plants. • Systematic description: Shrub up to 100 cm, tomentose. Leaves 10-40 mm, linear to oblong-lanceolate, entire, usually grey-tomentose. Peduncle shorter than spike. Spike usually 2-3 cm; fertile bracts 4-8 mm, rhombic-cordate, tomentose; upper bracts 10-50 mm, oblong-obovate, usually purple, without flowers in their axils; verticillasters 6- to 10-flowered. Lower bracts acute. Calyx 4-6 mm, 13-veined, the upper tooth with an obcordate appendage at the apex 1-1,5 mm wide. Corolla 6-8 mm, usually dark purple. 2n = 30. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region, From N.E. Spain eastwards to Greece. It is native in Greece. It occurs in mainland and insular Greece. In study area it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aitoloakarnania, Zakynthos, Ithaca and Kefalonia. • Μedicinal uses: Lavender is a mild natural tranquilizer, useful for treating anxiety, insomnia and depression. Its infusion has digestive, tonic, antispasmodic action and it is used to disinfect wounds and injuries. It is used in various cases, such as asthma, influenza, liver and spleen diseases, jaundice, congestion, leucorrhoea and weakening eyesight. A bath with lavender relives rheumatisms and gout, relaxes nerves and tight muscles Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas: Habit. and it is highly effective in cases of bruising, swelling, wrench, dislocation and strains. The essential oil contributes to cure the common cold, influenza, angina and bronchitis, headache, neurobehavioural disorders and insomnia. Use for gargling disinfects the oral lacerations and it is considered that it helps in case of tongue paralysis or even of stuttering. Breast embrocation hastens the treatment of pneumonia, pleurisy and pulmonary congestion, while it is considered that head embrocation combats alopecia. • Phytochemical composition: Lavender, as an aromatic plant, is well known for its high content of essential oil; the dried flowers contain from 1.5 to 3 per cent, fresh flowers yield about 0.5 per cent. Major volatile components are fenchone and camphor. Other important non-volatile components are the flavonoids and anthocyanins, and some simple phenolics.. 57 Malva sylvestris L. Sp. Pl.: 689. 1753 • Family: Malvaceae. • Synonyms: Malva ambigua Guss., Malva erecta C. Presl, Malva grossheimii Iljin, Malva mauritiana L., Malva sylvestris subsp. ambigua (Guss.) P. Fourn., Malva sylvestris subsp. erecta (C. Presl) Nyman, Malva sylvestris subsp. mauritiana (L.) Cout. • Traditional English: Mallow, High mallow, French Hollyhock, Common Mallow, Tree Mallow, Tall Mallow. • Systematic description: Biennial or perennial, with simple and stellate hairs. Stems up to 150 cm, erect to decumbent, woody at the base. Leaves very variable in size, reniform to suborbicular-cordate, more or less palmatifid, with 3-7 semicircular to oblong, crenate lobes. Epicalyx-segments oblong-lanceolate to elliptical; sepals stellate-pubescent beneath; petals 12-30 mm, pink to purple, with darker veins, bearded. Mericarps glabrous or pubescent, strongly reticulate; dorsal face flat; angles sharp, but not winged. 2n = 42. • Geographical distribution: Almost throughout Europe except the extreme north. Only as an alien in much of the north. 58 • Medicinal uses: It has soothing, demulcent and diuretic properties, relieves and treats cough, stomach and duodenal ulcers. Mallow is used widely for medicinal preparations. Using the roots, there are prepared ointments and poultices for the treatment of woods, burns and rashes. It is also used as a demulcent, soothing and as a cough suppressant. It is used to treat ailments of digestive and urinary system (such us cases of colic, cystitis and gastritis) and to treat intestinal disorders. In recent years, research is conducted for its anticancer properties. • Phytochemical composition: All the parts of the plant, but mainly flowers and leaves, contain mucus, which is hydrolyzed into sugar and derivative compounds: galactose, arabinose, raminose and galacturonic acid. Leaves contain small amount of vitamins Α, Β1, Β2 and C. Malva sylvestris L.: Habit. Marrubium vulgare L. Sp. Pl.: 583. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae • Synonyms: Prasium marrubium E. H. L. Krause, nom. superfl. • Traditional English: White Horehound, Common Horehound. • Systematic description: Branches up to 45 cm, whitish-hairy at least beneath, with many short non-flowering branches. Leaves orbicular to broadly ovate, subcordate or rounded at base, deeply and irregularly crenate, sparsely tomentose to subglabrous above, more densely tomentose beneath; petioles of lower leaves shorter than lamina. Verticillasters globose, many-flowered, distant. Bracteoles subulate, villous-plumose. Calyx-tube 3-4 mm, obscurely 10-striate, villous-pubescent, teeth 10, shorter than corolla, equal, patent, hamate, villous beneath, glabrous above. Corolla exceeding calyx-teeth, white. 2n = 34. • Geographical distribution: Waste places. Europe, from England, S. Sweden and C. Russia southwards. [All except Fa Fe Is No Rs (N) Sb; only as an alien in Hb]. In our country, it occurs on islands and also in mainland Greece. In study area, it occurs in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia, Zakynthos and Kefalonia. • Medicinal uses: Horehound is mainly considered to be useful as an expectorant and antitussive herb. It is used as cough suppressant and as a very helpful remedy against common cold symptoms, for acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma, chest, nasal and sinus congestion, respiratory infections and sore throat. It is also very useful in treatment of cardiac arrhythmia, diabetes, bowel, gallbladder and uterine disorders. Horehound is beneficial as a gastric tonic, useful in cases of loss of appetite and flatulence. Used externally, it can be an efficient wound cleanser, and can help in cases of both temporary and persistent skin disorders. The leaves and young flowering stems are antiseptic, antispasmodic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, and Marrubium vulgare L.: Verticillasters “globose” with many flowers. stimulant As a bitter tonic, it increases the appetite and supports the function of the stomach. The root is a remedy for the bite of rattlesnakes, it is used in equal portions with Plantago lanceolata or P. major. • Phytochemical composition: Horehound contains many and various bioactive natural products. A number of diterpene derivatives (especially of the labdane type) have been isolated from Marrubium, e.g. marrubiin (a lactone) and some alcohols (marrubenol, marrubiol, etc). In addition, flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin), tannins, phenylpropanoids, essential oil (rich in sesquiterpenes), unusual fatty acids (9-octadecynoic acid), sterols and other triterpenes (ursolic and oleanolic acid) have been identified in horehound extracts. 59 Matricaria chamomilla L. Sp. Pl.: 891. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae • Synonyms: Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert, Courrantia chamomilloides Sch. Bip., nom. illeg., Matricaria bayeri Kanitz, Matricaria courrantiana DC., Matricaria exigua Tuntas, Matricaria kochiana Sch. Bip., Matricaria pusilla Willd., Matricaria recutita L., Matricaria salina (Schur) Schur, Matricaria suaveolens L., nom. illeg., Chamomilla recutita var. bayeri (Kanitz) Dostál, Matricaria chamomilla var. salina Schur. • Traditional English: it is commonly known as Chamomile (also spelled camomile), German chamomile, Hungarian chamomile, Wild chamomile or Scented mayweed. • Systematic description: Glabrous. Stems (2-)10-60 cm, erect or ascending, much-branched above. Leaves 4-7 cm; segments acute, well separated. Peduncles 3-10 cm; capitula (1-)8-120(-900), 10-25 mm in diameter; involucral bracts with a pale margin. Ligules 6-9 x 2-3 mm, soon deflexed, rarely absent; tubular florets 5-lobed, yellow; upper part of tube campanulate above a marked constriction. Achenes c. 1 mm, pale greyish-brown, with 4-5 ribs on the ventral face; pappus usually very small or absent, but sometimes, especially in achenes of the ligulate florets, a conspicuous, irregularly toothed auricle, as long as or longer than the achene. 2n = 18. 60 • Geographical distribution: Cosmopolitan. Most of Europe, but probably native only in the south and east. [All except Az Fa Hb Is Rs (N) Sb; casual in some of these]. Cultivated fields, waste places and saline steppes; sometimes cultivated as a medicinal plant. In Greece, it is native distributed in mainland and the islands. • Medicinal uses: It is considered as an effective herbal drug for treating various digestive disorders, nervous tension and irritability, and is also used externally to treat skin problems. An infusion of the flowers is taken internally as an anodyne, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, Matricaria chamomilla L.: Habit. Usual appearance in nature. febrifuge, sedative, stomachic, tonic and vasodilator. It is also useful as stomachic, nervine and sedative medicine for young children, especially when they are teething. It is also used in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn’s disease, peptic ulcers and hiatus hernia. The flowers are also used externally to treat wounds, sunburn, burns, haemorrhoids, mastitis and leg ulcers. Upon steam distillation these proazulenes produce chamazulene, which is remarkably anti-allergenic and anti-inflammatory and is useful in the treatment of asthma and hay fever. The German E Commission has approved chamomile for internal use to treat gastrointestinal spasms and inflammatory diseases, and external use for inflammation of the skin, mucous membranes and ano-genital area, bacterial skin diseases (including those of the oral cavity and gums) and respiratory tract inflammation. • Phytochemical Composition: The flowers are rich in volatile or essential oil (0.4–2.0%). The main constituents of the oil include the terpenoids α-bisabolol and its oxides and azulenes, including chamazulene (1–15%). Chamazulene is an artifactual component with anti-inflammatory properties, formed under high temperature and/or acidic conditions from matricin (prochamazulene), which is present in fresh flower heads. Teas brewed from chamomile contain 10–15% of the essential oil available in the flower. Essential oil composition of chamomile can vary significantly (both qualitatively and quantitatively) among growing regions, in cultivated versus wild plant populations, and with different processing conditions. Several flavonoids and other phenolic compounds (cinnamic acid derivatives) in high amounts have been identified in various parts of the chamomile flower head. The main flavonoids are apigenin (16.8%), quercetin (9.9%), patuletin (6.5%), and luteolin (1.9%) and their glucosides. Other important constituents are the coumarins, which are present in a percentage of approximately 0.1% of the total constituents. 61 Melissa officinalis L. subsp. altissima (Sm.) Arcang. Comp. Fl. Ital., ed. 2: 427. 1894 • Family: Lamiaceae • Synonyms: Melissa altissima Sm., Melissa officinalis subvar. altissima (Sm.) Nyman, Melissa bicornis Klokov, Melissa romana Mill., Melissa officinalis var. romana (Mill.) Woodv. • Traditional English: Lime Balm, Balm, Lemon Balm, Melissa Balm (USA), Balm Mint. The name derives from its property to attract bees. Ancient Greeks called it “melissofyllo” (bee leaf) from the words “bee”(μέλισσα) and “leaf”(φύλλο), while the ancient Romans called it “apiastrum” from “apias”, which means bee. • Systematic description: Stems 20-150 cm, erect, branched, shortly glandular-puberulent, and with sparse or dense, long, patent, eglandular hairs, or glabrescent. Leaves 2-9 x 1,5-7 cm, broadly ovate to rhombic, obtuse or acute, more or less deeply crenate except at the base. Greyish- or whitish-tomentose beneath. Floral leaves truncate or subcordate at the base. Verticillasters 4- to 12-flowered. Bracteoles 2-5 mm, ovate to linear, entire. Calyx 7-9 mm, with long, patent, eglandular and short glandular hairs; teeth of lower lip lanceolate-triangular. Middle tooth of the upper lip of fruiting calyx inconspicuous, truncate or emarginate. Corolla 8-15 mm, pale yellow, becoming white or pinkish. Nutlets 1,5-2 mm. 2n = 64. 62 • Geographical distribution: S. Europe. [AE(G) Al Bl Bu Co Cr Cy Gr Hs It Ju Lu Rf(CS) Sa Si Tcs Tu(A E)]. It is native in Greece; it is distributed in Greek mainland and also on islands. In the study area, it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aitoloakarnania, Kefalonia ans Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Melissa officinalis L leaves have been used in traditional medicine in Europe for long, in the form of herbal tea, powdered herbal substance or aqueous/ethanolic extracts, for the relief of mild symptoms of mental stress, to aid sleep and for the symptomatic relief of mild gastrointestinal complaints including bloating and flatulence. The above are well documented in a number of handbooks and official pharmacopoeias, Melissa officinalis L. subsp. altissima (Sm.) Arcang.: Verticillasters with flowers. and the plant is consequently approved as a traditional herbal medicine for those indications in Europe by the European Medicines Agency. Melissa is also claimed to have antibacterial and antiviral properties (against herpes simplex). • Phytochemical composition: Essential oil 0,06– 0,8% containing monoterpene aldehydes, mainly citral, neral and citronellal, and sesquiterpene derivatives. The herb is rich in phenylpropanoids including hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. Flavonoids such as glycosides of luteolin, quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol are, also, abundant components. Other components are monoterpene glycosides, tannins and triterpenes including ursolic and oleanolic acids. Melittis melissophyllum subsp. albida (Guss.) P. W. Ball in Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 64: 71. 1971 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Melittis albida Guss., Melittis melisso phyllum var. albida (Guss.) Nyman, Melittis graeca Klokov. Traditional English: Balm leaved melittis, Bastard Balm. Melittis is derived from the Greek melitta, which is in turn from melissa (“a bee”). • Systematic description: Stems 20-70 cm, erect, densely covered with small, stipitate glands. Leaves 2-15 x 1-8 cm, oblong to ovate, cordate to truncate at base, coarsely crenate or dentate. Largest leaves 6-15 cm, with 20-30 large teeth on each side. Pedicels 4-10 mm. Calyx 12-25 mm. Corolla 25-40 mm, Corolla white, often with pink or purple markings on the lower lip, rarely purple.; tube much exceeding the calyx. 2n = 30. • Geographical distribution: S. Italy, Sicilia, Balkan Peninsula. In our country it is native with spread in mainland Greece. In the study, it occurs in Achaia, Ilia and Aitoloakarnania. • Medicinal uses: It is considered a remedy for a variety of health problems, including diarrhea, nose bleeds, bleeding, kidney infection and disease, menstrual problems, anxiety, nervousness and for the treatment of wounds. The essential oil from the leaves has been used for its sedative, narcotic, antifungal, antibacterial and antifungal effects and is a muscle relaxant and spasmolytic. • Phytochemical composition: The leaves contain phenolic acids and flavonoids (kaempferol, apigenin and luteolin among others) and possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. Coumarin occurs in the bastard balm; the subsp. albida contains lower content of coumarin than the subsp. melissophyllum, which contains high levels, mainly in the early stages of the plant cycle. Melittis melissophyllum subsp. albida (Guss.) P. W. Ball: Two forms of plant with different colored leaves. 63 Mentha aquatica L. Sp. Pl.: 576. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Marrubium aquaticum (L.) Uspensky, Mentha aquatica var. nemorosa Fr., des. inval., Mentha acuta Opiz, Mentha hirsuta Huds. • Traditional English: Water Mint. The name mint is derived from the Latin mentha, which in turn comes from the Greek mint. • Systematic description: Subglabrous to tomentose, often purplish perennial (10-)20-90 cm, with strong scent. Leaves (15-)30-90 x (10-)15-40 mm, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, usually truncate at base, petiolate, serrate. Inflorescence of 2-3 congested verticillasters with inconspicuous bracts, forming a terminal head up to 2 cm in diameter, sometimes with 1-3 distant verticillasters below, in the axils of leaf-like bracts. Calyx (2,5-)3-4 mm, tubular, the veins distinct; teeth subulate or narrowly triangular. Pedicels hairy. Corolla lilac. Nutlets pale brown. 2n = 96. • Geographical distribution: Europe except the extreme north. [All except Rs (N) Sb]. It is a cosmopolitan species. In our country it is native and spreads mainly in mainland Greece. Populations can vary from moderate to small and usually scattered from region to region. In the study area it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aetolia and Cephalonia. 64 • Medicinal uses: In Ancient Greece, Hippocrates and Galen used mint against dyspepsia, against nerve disorders, vertigo, insomnia, gastritis, coughs, colds, sore throats and as an antispasmodic. The leaves are anodyne, antiseptic, astringent, cholagogue, diaphoretic, emetic, refrigerant, stimulant, tonic and vasodilator. A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, digestive disorders and various minor ailments. It is also used as a mouth-wash and a gargle for treating sore throats, ulcers, bad breath etc. The leaves are harvested as the plant comes into flower and can be dried for later use. The essential oil in the leaves is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses. Mentha aquatica L.: Habit. Species M. spicata L. and M. suaveolens have similar medicinal properties Phytochemical composition: Rich in essential oil containing many monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, the predominant of which are menthofuran, 1,8-cineole and trans-csryophyllene. In addition, many polar and lipophilic flavonoids and other phenolics have been identified. Mentha pulegium L. Sp. Pl.: 577. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Melissa pulegium (L.) Griseb., Minthe pulegia (L.) St.-Lag., Pulegium vulgare Mill., Mentha pulegium subsp. vulgaris (Mill.) Briq., Mentha pulegium var. vulgaris (Mill.) Briq. • Traditional English: Pennyroyal, European pennyroyal, Squaw mint, Mosquito plant, Pudding grass. • Systematic description: Stems 20-50(-90) cm, erect, straight, usually simple, deflexed-puberulent or -pubescent. Leaves 10-30 x 5-20 mm, ovate, obtuse to acute, more or less crenate-dentate, shortly appressed pubescent, densely punctate beneath. Verticillasters with 1070 flowers, lax, the lowest shorter and the upper longer than the subtending leaves. Calyx 3,5-4 mm, shortly pubescent, sparsely hairy in throat; teeth 1/3-1/2 as long as tube, linear-lanceolate or setaceous, equal. Corolla 7-9 mm, white or lilac. Nutlets obtuse. • Geographical distribution: It is a cosmopolitan species. [AE(G) Ag Al Au Az Be Bl Br Bu By Ca Co Cr Cy Cz Eg Ga Ge Gr Hb He Ho Hs Hu IJ It Ju Li LS Lu Ma Md Po Rf(CS S) Rm Sa Si Tcs Tn Tu(A E) Uk(K U)]. It is native in our country with distribution in mainland and insular Greece. Populations depending on each region vary from moderate to small. In the study area, it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aitoloakarnania and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: Pennyroyal is used for colds, pneumonia, and other breathing problems. It is also used for stomach pains, gas, intestinal disorders, and liver and gallbladder problems. Women use it to start or regulate their menstrual periods, or to cause an abortion. Pennyroyal is also used to control muscle spasms, cause sweating, and increase urine production. Some people use it as a stimulant and to counteract weakness. Pennyroyal is applied to the skin to kill germs, keep insects away, and treat skin diseases. It is also used topically for gout, venomous bites, and mouth sores; and as a flea-killing bath. Mentha pulegium L.: Branch with successive verticillasters. • Phytochemical composition: The plant is rich in volatile oil. Essential oil contains oxygenated monoterpenes, mainly pulegone. Major monoterpenes hydrocarbons were limonene and α-pinene, while sesquiterpenoids were detected in low levels. 65 Myrtus communis L. subsp. communis Sp. Pl.: 471. 1753 • Family: Myrtaceae • Synonyms: Myrtus acuta Mill., Myrtus acutifolia (L.) Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus angustifolia Raf., nom. illeg., Myrtus augustinii Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus baetica (L.) Mill., Myrtus baui Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus belgica (L.) Mill., Myrtus borbonis Sennen, Myrtus briquetii (Sennen & Teodoro) Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus buxifolia Raf., nom. illeg., Myrtus christinae (Sennen & Teodoro) Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus eusebii (Sennen & Teodoro) Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus gervasii (Sennen & Teodoro) Sennen & Teodoro, Myrtus italica Mill. etc. • Traditional English: Common myrtle, True myrtle. • Systematic description: Erect, much-branched shrub, up to 5 m. Twigs glandular-hairy when young. Leaves 2-5 cm, ovate-lanceolate, acute, entire, coria ceous, punctate, very aromatic when crushed,not crowded.Flowers up to 3 cm in diameter, sweet-scented. Pedicels long, slender, with 2 small, caducous bracteoles. Petals suborbicular, white. Berry 7-10 x 6-8 mm, broadly ellipsoid, usually blue-black when ripe. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region and S.W Europe. [Al AzBl Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si]. It has been widely cultivated, for this reason, regions where it is native are uncertain. 66 • Medicinal uses: The herb is purported to be a balsamic, astringent, antiseptic, astringent and decongestive. Internal use of herb is indicated for urinary infections, vaginal infections and bronchial congestion. External use can be do for gingival infections, acne and emorrhoidals. The decoction if add at bathing water can has a tonic action. • Phytochemical composition: Terpens (pinene 2040%, limonene 9-15%) esters (myrtenyl acetate 2025%) alcohol (linalol 1-7%). Myrtus communis L. subsp. communis: Habit. Origanum vulgare L. subsp. hirtum (Link) A. Terracc. • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Origanum hirtum Link, Majorana neglecta (Vogel) Walp., Origanum heracleoticum Benth., nom. illeg., Origanum illyricum Scheele, Origanum latifolium Scheele, nom. illeg., Origanum megastachyum Link, Origanum megastachyum Link, Origanum neglectum Vogel, Origanum smyrnaeum Sm., Origanum hirtum var. illyricum (Scheele) Nyman, Origanum hirtum var. latifolium Nyman, Origanum hirtum var. neglectum (Vogel) Nyman, Origanum vulgare var. megastachyum (Link) W. D. J. Koch. • Traditional English: Greek Oregano, Oregano. Oregano derived from two Greek terms: oros (mountain) and ganos (joy, beauty, decoration). It is sometimes called wild marjoram, and its close relative O. majorana is known as sweet marjoram. • Systematic description: Woody, rhizomatous perennial; stems up to 90 cm or more, usually branched above, pubescent, hirsute or velutinous, rarely glabrous. Leaves 10-40(-50) x 4-25 mm, ovate, entire or shallowly crenate-serrate, glabrous or hairy, glandular-punctate, petiolate. Spicules 5-30 mm, ovoid, oblong, or prismatic, forming a corymb or panicle. Bracts 4-5 mm, as long as to nearly twice as long as calyx, ovate, not apiculate, hairy or glabrous, eglandular or sparsely glandular-punctate, herbaceous, violet-purple or greenish. Calyx yellow-glandular-punctate, hairy or glabrous. Corolla 4-7 mm, white or purplish-red. 2n = 30, ?32. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe. [AE(G) Al Bu Cr Cy Gr Ju Tu(A E)]. It is a European plant but it is also distributed northwards.. Many species, subspecies and their varieties are found in all Mediterranean countries, Europe, Asia and America. In Greece it is found from coastal regions to high mountains. In the study area it occurs in Achaia, Aitoloakarnania, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaca. In Aitoloakarnania, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaca also Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare occurs. Οriganum vulgare L. subsp. hirtum (Link) A. Terracc: Detail of the inflorescence. • Medicinal uses: Οregano is used orally for gastrointestinal disorders, such as dyspepsia and bloating but also, for peptic ulcers and gastrointestinal candidiasis. Tradition and modern research show that oregano is effective against bacterial and fungal infections. As a tea, oregano is used for respiratory tract infections. It is, also, considered as a tonic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic and diuretic agent. Thus, it is used orally for dysmenorrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, urinary tract disorders including urinary tract infections (UTIs), headaches, and heart conditions. Τhe oil is used orally for intestinal parasites, allergies, sinusitis, arthritis, cold and flu, swine flu, earaches, and fatigue. Topically, oregano oil is used for acne, athlete’s foot, dandruff, insect and spider bites, gum disease, toothaches, psoriasis, seborrhea, ringworm, rosacea, muscle pain, varicose veins, and warts. • Phytochemical composition: As an aromatic herb, oregano has a high content in essential oil. The main volatile constituents are thymol and carvacrol, compounds with antimicrobial potential. Furthermore, oregano is rich in phenolic acids (including rosmarinic) and flavonoids. Sesquiterpenes and ursolic acid have been determined. 67 Parietaria officinalis L. Sp. Pl.: 1052. 1753 • Family: Urticaceae. • Synonyms: Parietaria erecta Mert. & W. D. J. Koch. • Traditional English: Pellitory of the Wall, Upright pellitory. • Systematic description: Perennial; stem 30-100 cm, erect, simple or slightly branched, densely pubescent. Leaves 3-12 cm, ovate-lanceolate or elliptical, long-acuminate; petiole shorter than the lamina. Bracts free, shorter than the perianth. Achenes black. 2n = 14. • Geographical distribution: Damp, shady rocks and banks. C. & S.E. Europe, extending to Corse and C. France. [Al Au Co CzGaGe Gr He *Ho Hu It JuRmRs(W, K) Sa Si Tu (Be Da Po Su)]. 68 • Medicinal uses: Pellitory of the wall has been valued for over 2.000 years for its diuretic action, as a soother of chronic coughs and as a balm for wounds and burns. Ιt is regarded as having a restorative action on the kidneys, supporting and strengthening their function. The whole herb, gathered when in flower, is cholagogue, slightly demulcent, diuretic, laxative, refrigerant and vulnerary. It is an efficacious remedy for kidney and bladder stones and other complaints of the urinary system such as cystitis and nephritis. It should not be prescribed to people with hay fever or other allergic conditions. The leaves can be usefully employed externally as a poultice on wounds etc. They have a soothing effect on simple burns and scalds. The plant is harvested when flowering and can be used fresh or dried. • Phytochemical composition: Parietaria officinalis contains calcium, potassium salts, mucilage, substances containing sulphur, flavonoids and tannins.. Parietaria officinalis L: Habit. Pistacia lentiscus L. Sp. Pl. 1026 (1753) • Family: Anacardiaceae. • Synonyms: Pistacia massiliensis Mill., Terebinthus lentiscus Moench, Pistacia gummifera Salisb., Terebinthus vulgaris Fourr., Lentiscus massiliensis (Mill.) Fourr. • Traditional English: Mastic Tree. • Systematic description: Small evergreen tree or shrub 1-8 m. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets 1-5 x 0,5-1,5 cm, (4-)8-12, lanceolate to obovate-lanceolate, mucronate, coriaceous; rhachis broadly winged; petioles glabrous. Inflorescence compact, spike-like. Flowers yellowish or purplish. Drupe c. 4 mm, globose, apiculate, red becoming black. Pistacia lentiscus L.: Fruits. • Geographical distribution: Dry open woods and scrub. Mediterranean region, extending to Portugal. [Al Bl Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si]. • Medicinal uses: It is little used in modern herbalism though it could be employed as an expectorant for bronchial troubles and coughs and as a treatment for diarrhoea. The resin has analgesic, antitussive, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, odontalgic, sedative and stimulant properties. It is mixed with other substances and used as a temporary filling for carious teeth. Internally it is used for the treatment of diarrhoea in children and externally it is applied to boils, ulcers, ringworm and muscular stiffness. • Phytochemical composition: Leaves are rιch of tannins and essential oil. 69 Portulaca oleracea L. Sp. Pl. 445 (1753) • Family: Portulacaceae. • Synonyms: Portulaca officinarum Crantz, Portulaca stellata (Danin & H. G. Baker) Ricceri & Arrigoni, Portulaca oleracea subsp. stellata Danin & H. G. Baker • Traditional English: Common purslane, Verdolaga, pigweed, Little hogweed, Pursley, Moss rose. • Systematic description: Annual with branched stems 10-50 cm. Leaves mostly scattered and alternate, but subopposite and crowded below flowers, oblong-obovate, sessile with a cuneate base, shining. Flowers solitary or 2 or 3 together, οften terminal. Sepals c. 4 mm, keeled, united into a short tube at the base; petals 5, 6-8 mm, yellow, obovate, slightly united; stamens 7-12. Capsule 3-9 mm, obovoid; seeds black. • Geographical distribution: Cultivated as a vegetable (Purslane), and a weed of cultivation. Europe, northwards to c. 55° N. Not native, except perhaps in parts of the south; casual only in N. Europe. 70 • Medicinal uses: The plant is antibacterial, antiscorbutic, depurative, diuretic and febrifuge. The leaves are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, which is thought to be important in preventing heart attacks and strengthening the immune system. The fresh juice is used in the treatment of strangury, coughs, sores etc. The leaves are poulticed and applied to burns, both they and the plant juice are particularly effective in the treatment of skin diseases and insect stings. A tea made from the leaves is used in the treatment of stomach aches and headaches. The leaf juice is applied to earaches, it is also said to alleviate caterpillar stings. The seeds are tonic and vermifuge. They are prescribed for dyspepsia and opacities of the cornea • Phytochemical composition: It contains large amounts of vitamin Α, C, vitamin Β (less amount), carotenoids, calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, glutathione etc. Also, it is the herb with the highest content in ω–3 fatty acids. Portulaca oleracea L.: Stems with flowers. Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh. Syst. Verz.: 153. 1800 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Inula dysenterica L., Pulicaria palustris Hoffmanns. & Link, Pulicaria dysenterica subsp. uliginosa Nyman • Traditional English: Common Fleabane. • Systematic description: Perennial with scaly stolons. Stems 20-60 cm, lanate or tomentose, freely branched. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, the lowest petiolate, withered at anthesis, the others sessile, usually widest near the semiamplexicaul, auriculate base; all undulate, remotely serrate, green and scabrid above, greyish-tomentose beneath. Capitula usually numerous, 1,5-3 cm in diameter, hemispherical; peduncles 1,5-2,5 cm, not thickened above, without or with 1 bract. Involucral bracts linear to subulate, more or less lanate and glandular. Ligules c. 5 mm longer than the involucre, patent. Pappus of scales connate for more than 1/2 their length, surrounding 1420 hairs. Achenes c. 1,5 mm, hairy. 2n = 18, 20. Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh.: Flowering heads. • Geographical distribution: S., W. & C. Europe, extending northwards to Denmark. [All except Az Fa Fe Is No Rs (N, B, ?C, E) Sb. Damp places.]. In our country, it is native with a wide distribution. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaia, Εlia, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: The leaves when bruised have a somewhat soap-like smell; they can be used in the treatment of dysentery. A paste of the plant is applied externally to wounds. The sap that is found in the tissues is bitter, astringent and saltish, so that animals will not eat the plant, and this astringent character, to which no doubt the medicinal properties are to be ascribed, is imparted to decoctions and infusions of the dried herb. The root is, also, astringent and is used in the treatment of dysentery. • Phytochemical composition: The plant is well known for the presence of lipophilic O-methylated somewhat rare flavonoids. 71 Pyrus spinosa Forssk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab.: 211. 1775 • Family: Rosaceae. • Synonyms: Crataegus amygdaliformis (Vill.) Chalon, Pyrus amygdaliformis Vill., Pyrus amygdaloides Link, Pyrus angustifolia Decne., Pyrus cuneifolia Guss., Pyrus nivalis Lindl., Pyrus oblongifolia Spach, Pyrus parviflora Desf., Pyrus pyrainus Raf., Pyrus communis subsp. amygdaliformis (Vill.) Braun-Blanq. • Traditional English: Iberian pear, Almond-leaf pear. • Systematic description: Shrub or small tree up to 6 m; branches sometimes spiny. Twigs grey, dull, tomentose while young. Leaves 2,5-8 x 1-3 cm, narrowly lanceolate to obovate, usually entire, rarely 3-lobed, with rounded or cuneate base, sparsely hairy when young, papillose beneath at maturity; petiole 2-5 cm. Sepals 5-6 x 1,5 mm, triangular, acuminate. Petals 7-8 x 5-6 mm, elliptical, usually emarginate at apex. Fruit 1,5-3 cm in diameter, usually globose, fulvous; pedicel stout, as long as or slightly longer than fruit; calyx persistent. • Geographical distribution: Dry, rocky places. Mediterranean region, Bulgaria. [Al Bu Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Sa Si Tu]. • Medicinal uses: It acts as a styptic, against dyspepsia, against diarrhea, as a refrigerant, beneficial for respiratory system and for painful menstrual bleeding. 72 • Phytochemical composition: It contains fruit acids, such as malic acid, citric acid, quinic acid, cyanogenic glycosides (amygdalin), aromatic compounds, derivatives of caffeic acis, 5-caffeoylquinic acid and pectin. Pyrus spinosa Forssk.: Fruits. Quercus frainetto Ten. Fl. Napol. 1(Suppl. 2): lxxii. 1813 • Family: Fagaceae. • Synonyms: Quercus conferta Kit., Quercus farnetto Ten. • Traditional English: Hungarian oak, Italian oak, Oak. • Systematic description: Deciduous tree up to 30 m; twigs tomentose; buds large, surrounded by persistent stipules. Leaves 10-20 cm, crowded towards the apex of twig, obovate, tapered to the auricled base, deeply pinnatifid with 7-9 pairs of oblong, often lobed segments, pubescent beneath with grey or brownish hairs; lateral veins parallel, with few intercalary veins; petiole 2-6 mm. Involucre 6-12 x 12-15 mm; scales oblong, obtuse, pubescent, loosely imbricate. • Geographical distribution: Balkan peninsula, extending northwards to N.W. Romania; S. & C. Italy. [Al Bu *Cz Gr *Hu It Ju Rm Tu]. In Greece, it is found almost throughout the country. In the study area it occurs in Achaia, Elia and Aetolia. • Medicinal uses: The astringent effects of oak bark or nutgalls are known for centuries. Oak bark was applied topically to burns and wounds, or applied orally in gastritis or diarrhoea. Any galls produced on the tree are strongly astringent and can be used in the treatment of haemorrhages, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery etc. Infusions of oak bark were used for gargle for sore throat and for adding to a hot bath for sore or excessively perspiring feet or sprained ankle. The infusions were also used for treatment of ulcers, toothache, neuralgia and rheumatism. European Medicines Agency has allowed the use of oak tree bark as a traditional herbal medicinal product for the symptomatic treatment of mild diarrhea, of minor inflammation of the oral mucosa or skin, and for symptomatic relief of itching and burning associated with haemorrhoids. • Phytochemical composition: The oak bark contains highly variable amount of tannins (8-20%). The tannin content depends on the time of the harvest, age of the Quercus frainetto Ten.: Representative leaves and fruits. branches and on the method of assay used. Tannins are polyphenolic secondary metabolites of higher plants. They comprise either: galloyl esters and their derivatives (gallotannins, ellagitannins and complex tannins) or they are oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins and can possess different interflavanyl coupling and substitution patterns (condensed tannins). 73 Ribes uva-crispa L. subsp. austro-europaeum (Bornm.) Bech. in Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 27: 228 (1929) • Family: Grossulariaceae. • Synonyms: Grossularia reclinata (L.) Mill., Ribes grossularia L., Ribes reclinatum L., Ribes uva-crispa subsp. austro-europeum Bornm., Ribes uva-crispa subsp. grossularia (L.) Rchb., Ribes uva-crispa subsp. grossularia (L.) Schübl. & G. Martens, Ribes uva-crispa subsp. lasiocarpum (Monnard) T. Vraber, des. inval., Ribes uva-crispa subsp. reclinatum (L.) Rchb., Ribes uvacrispa subsp. reclinatum (L.) Schübl. & G. Martens. • Traditional English: Gooseberry, European Gooseberry. • Systematic description: 1-1,5m, freely and intricately branched, and armed at the nodes with stout spines, usually in groups of 3 (very rarely abscent). Leaves 2-5 cm wide, rarely more, rather deeply lobed, glabrous or pubescent. Flowers in axillary cluster of 1-3; pedicels with 2 bracteoles near the middle. Sepals 5-7mm, ligulate, pale or pinkish-green; petals white, smaller. Fruit c. 10mm in diameter, green, yellow or purple-red, usually hispid. 2n- 16. • Geographical distribution: Native in S., C. & W. Europe; extensively cultivated and frequently naturalized by bird-dispersal in other areas. [Au Be Br Bu Cr Cz Ga Ge Gr He Ho Hs Hu It Ju Po Rm Rs (W) (Co Da Fe Hb Lu No Rs -N, B, C- Su)]. It is found in Greece in the Peloponnese, S & C. Greece and Crete. In the study area, it is found in mountainous environments, in Achaia and Ilia. 74 • Medicinal uses: The fruit is laxative. Stewed unripe gooseberries are used as a spring tonic to cleanse the system. The leaves have been used in the treatment of diarrhea, vomiting, bleeding, hemorrhoids and varicose veins. An infusion taken before the monthly periods is said to be a useful tonic for growing girls. The leaves contain tannin and have been used as an astringent to treat dysentery and wounds. The fruits, as all berries, have been reported to improve visual acuity and combat diabetes. Ribes uva-crispa L. subsp. austro-europaeum (Bornm.) Bech: Fruits. • Phytochemical composition: Gooseberries are a rich source of not only carbohydrates, vitamins and trace metals, but also of phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins and other polyphenols. Rosa canina L. Sp. Pl.: 491. 1753 • Family: Rosaceae. • Synonyms: Rosa canina consists of 118 synonyms. Some of them are: Crepinia canina (L.) Gand., Crepinia aciphylla (A. Rau) Gand., Crepinia andegavensis (Bastard) Gand., Crepinia psilophylla (A. Rau) Gand., Crepinia squarrosa (A. Rau) Gand., Rosa achburensis Chrshan., Rosa aciphylla A. Rau, Rosa aciphylloides Cottet & Castella, Rosa adenocalyx Gren., Rosa actinodroma Gand., etc. • Traditional English: Brier hip, Dog brier fruit, Dog rose fruit, Hipberries, Witches brier, Hip tree, Hip fruit, Hop fruit, Hogseed, Sweet Brier, Wild Brier, Witches Brier, Dog rose, Dagger rose, Haggebutt, Wild rose. The word “hips” comes from the Anglo-Saxon word hiope and “Dog Rose” comes from dag meaning “dagger”. • Systematic description: Stems green; internodes long. Prickles stout, curved or hooked; flowering stems rarely unarmed. Leaflets 5-7, 15-40 x 12-20 mm, ovate, obovate or elliptical, serrate or compound-serrate, glabrous and eglandular, dark to glaucous green, shining or dull above; petiole and rhachis often with acicles. Pedicels 10-20 mm, as long as or longer than the fruit, glabrous. Sepals deflexed and caducous after anthesis. Petals 15-25(-30) mm, pink to white. Disc wide, with the orifice less than 1 mm in diameter. Styles usually not long-exserted, densely villous to glabrous. Fruit 10-20 mm, globose, ovoid or ellipsoid, glabrous, red. 2n = 35. • Geographical distribution: Europe northwards to c.62° N. [All except Az Fa Is Sb Tu[. Native to Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia. In Greece it is found as native throughout the mainland and the islands. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaia, Ilia, Zakynthos and Cephalonia. • Medicinal uses: Dioscorides wrote about rose’s cooling and astringent qualities, and that the liquor of roses cooked in wine was useful for treating headaches and ailments of the eyes, ears, gums, anus, and womb. Powdered, dried rose flowers were sprinkled on food for pain of the gums. The ripe fruits have been used for colds, influenza, different infections, gastritis and to control diarrhea. They are usually taken for their vitamin C content and therefore suitable Rosa canina L.: Fruits and compound leaves. in vitamin-C deficiency. They may be also used as a diuretic and to increase capillary strength. Syrup made from the hips is used as a pleasant flavouring in medicines and is added to cough mixtures. The seeds have been used as a vermifuge. Rose hips are used for blood conditions (blood purifier, conditions where blood is being brought up via the lungs, internal hemorrhaging, spitting of blood), female conditions (disorders of the breast, excessive menstruation, uterine cramps), gastrointestinal conditions (diarrhea, dysentery), respiratory conditions (chest infections, colds, coughs, influenza), urinary tract conditions (cleans out the kidneys and bladder, eliminates uric acid accumulations, helping with gout and rheumatic complaints, treats fluid retention), and also for other, such as general debility and exhaustion. Based on long-standing use, European Medicines Agency permitted the use of whole dried petals of R. gallica, R. damascena, R. centifolia in Europe as a traditional herbal medicinal product for mild inflammations of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa and for relief of minor skin inflammation. • Phytochemical composition: The main bioactive components in ripe fruits are vitamins A, C, and E, flavonoids, tannins and essential fatty acids. 75 Rosmarinus officinalis L. Sp. Pl. 23 (1753) • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Rosmarinus officinalis subsp. laxiflorus (Noë ex Lange) Nyman. • Traditional English: Rosemary. According to Christian tradition, rosemary got its name from Virgin Mary, who left her cloak over the bush. By the next morning, the flowers of the bush had become blue and then it was named rose of Mary. The name Rosmarinus is derived from the Latin words “dew” (ros) and “sea” (marinus), which means “dew of the sea” (sea breeze) - apparently because it is frequently found near the sea. • Systematic description: Up to 2 m, with erect, ascending or rarely procumbent, brown branches; aromatic. Leaves 15-40 x 1,2-3,5 mm, linear, coriaceous, with revolute margins, bright green and rugulose above, white-tomentose beneath, sessile. Peduncle and pedicels stellate-tomentose; calyx 3-4 mm, green or purplish and sparsely tomentose when young, later 5-7 mm subglabrous and distinctly veined. Corolla 10-12 mm, pale blue (rarely pink or white). Nutlets brown. 2n = 24. 76 • Geographical distribution: Dry scrub. Mediterranean region, extending to Portugal and N.W. Spain; cultivated elsewhere for ornament or for its aromatic oil. [Bl Co *Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si (Al Az Su He Rs-K)]. In Greece, it is found as native in some Ionian islands and the Aegean islands and in mainland Greece. In the study area it occurs in Zakynthos, covering large areas in the W-NW area of the island, with representative populations in the Shipwreck. As cultivated. it is found in gardens of many settlements in Achaia, Ilia, Aetolia, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaca. • Medicinal uses: Rosemary was used in traditional Greek medicine as a tonic, stimulant, and carminative for dyspepsia, headache, and nervous tension. The ancient Greeks used rosemary to strengthen the memory. It has been used to stimulate hair growth and topically to treat cancer Leaves and oil are used for the treatment of rheumatism, dyspeptic complaints, loss of appetite, blood pressure problems, muscle pains, arthritis and improve circulation (applied topically to the skin). The whole Rosmarinus officinalis L.: Close glance to the flowers, the upper limb of the corolla is missing. plant is antiseptic, antispasmodic, aromatic, astringent, cardiac, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, nervine, stimulant, stomachic and tonic. An infusion of the flowering stems made in a closed container to prevent the steam from escaping is effective in treating headaches, colic, colds and nervous diseases. Distilled water from the flowers is used as an eyewash. Based on the data for long-standing medicinal use in Europe, European Medicines Agency allowed the circulation of preparations of rosmarinus leaves or essential oil as traditional herbal medicinal products for symptomatic relief of dyspepsia and mild spasmodic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract (oral use), and as an adjuvant in the relief of minor muscular and articular pain and in minor peripheral circulatory disorders (bath additive or cutaneous use). • Phytochemical composition: Research has shown that the plant is rich in volatile oils, flavanoids and phenolic acids, which are strongly antiseptic and anti-inflammatory. Rosmarinic acid has potential in the treatment of toxic shock syndrome, whilst the flavonoid diosmin is reputedly more effective than rutin in reducing capillary fragility. Rubus idaeus L. Sp. Pl.: 492. 1753 • Family: Rosaceae. • Synonyms: Batidaea idaea (L.) Greene, Rubus fragrans Salisb., nom. illeg., Rubus frambaesianus Lam., nom. illeg. • Traditional English: Raspberry, European Red Raspberry, Red Raspberry, Brambles, Brambleberry, Wild Red, Bramble of Mount Ida, Garden Raspberry, Raspis, Hindberry. • Systematic description: Suckering by adventitious buds from the roots; stems 100-150 cm, erect, terete, pruinose, often armed with numerous weak prickles. Leaves, usually, pinnate with 5-7 leaflets or ternate, glabrescent above, white-tomentose beneath; terminal leaflet ovate or oblong, sometimes slightly lobed, cordate, shortly acuminate; stipules filiform, ciliate. Inflorescence of few-flowered, leafy, terminal and axillary racemes, the axis eglandular, with sparse acicles; flowers c. 1 cm in diameter, nodding. Sepals lanceolate, tomentose; petals narrow, erect, glabrous, white; stamens white, erect. Fruit red or orange. 2n = 14. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe, but only on mountains in the south. [All except Az Bl Cr Fa Is Lu Sb Tu[. It is a plant with distribution in Europe, Asia and North America. In Greece it is found as native throughout the mainland. In the study area it occurs in Aetolia, Achaia and Ilia. • Medicinal uses: Traditionally, raspberry was used in treatments of anemia, diarrhea, gingivitis, sores, leg cramps and morning sickness during pregnancy. Nowadays, it is mainly used for its astringent and stimulant properties. A strong tea made from the plant is useful in cases of sore throat and inflammation of the mucous membrane. Raspberry leaf is anti-hemorrhagic, astringent, cardiac, stimulant andtonic. Externally, raspberry leaf is used as a wash for burns, skin rashes, sores, ulcers, wounds. It is used as a gargle for bleeding gums, dissolving tartar on the teeth, inflammation of the mouth, Rubus idaeus L.: Representative fruits. sore throat, ulcers of the mouth. A decoction made from the leaves can also be used as eyewash against conjunctivitis, as a mouthwash and can help in reduction of excessive vaginal discharge. During pregnancy, the use of leaves cuts down on post-partum bleeding, decreases uterine swelling after childbirth, helps prevents miscarriage, helps the womb return to its normal place after pregnancy and to reduce false labor pains (warm infusion taken), improves the efficiency of contractions, increases milk supply in nursing mothers, reduces the pain of childbirth and the labor time during childbirth, strengthens and tones the tissues of the uterine wall during pregnancy to help with contractions and hemorrhaging, strengthens the pelvic muscles and ligaments to promote an easy normal birth and finally it is used in the last trimester of pregnancy as a uterine tonic. Based on long-standing use, the European Medicines Agency 77 allowed the inclusion of raspberry leaves in traditional herbal medicinal products for the symptomatic relief of minor spasm associated with menstrual periods, for the symptomatic treatment of mild inflammation in the mouth or throat and of mild diarrhoea. Rubus ulmifolius Schott. is used for its similar medicinal properties. • Phytochemical composition: Vitamin C and phenolics are present in red raspberries. Most notably, the anthocyanins cyanidin-3-sophoroside, cyanidin-3-(2(G)-glu- 78 cosylrutinoside) and cyanidin-3-glucoside and the two ellagitannins are present together with trace levels of flavonols, ellagic acid and hydroxycinnamate. Dried raspberry leaves contain polyphenolic secondary metabolites, mainly hydrolyzable tannins (2.6% to 6.9%). Other polyphenolic compounds present are mainly flavonoids (0.46 -1.05 % in dried leaves). In addition, terpenes, Vitamin C and E, and minerals such as calcium, magnesium and zinc have been identified. Raspberry leaf also contains very small amounts of phenolic acids such as caffeic and chlorogenic acid. Salvia fruticosa Mill. • Family: Lamiaceae • Synonyms: Salvia baccifera Etl., Salvia clusii Jacq., Salvia cypria Unger & Kotschy, Salvia incarnata Etl., Salvia libanotica Boiss. & Gaill., Salvia lobryana Azn., Salvia marrubioides Vahl, Salvia ovata F. Dietr., Salvia sipylea Lam., Salvia subtriloba Schrank, Salvia sypilea Lam., Salvia thomasii Lacaita, Salvia triloba L. f. • Traditional English: Greek sage, Greek oregano, Three-lobe sage. • Systematic description: Shrub up to 120 cm. Stems appressed white-tomentose. Leaves simple, or pinnate with 1-2 pairs of ovate lateral segments and a large oblong-elliptical terminal segment, petiolate, rugose eglandular, greyish-white beneath, greenish above. Verticillasters with 2-6 flowers. Calyx 5-8 mm, campanulate, toothed, often purple, glandular or eglandular-pubescent. Corolla 16-25 mm, lilac or pink, rarely white. • Geographical distribution: C. & E. Mediterranean region, from Sicilia to Crete. [Al Cr Gr It Si (Lu)]. In our country, its best populations are found mostly in the S., W. and C. Greece. More than 22 species of Salvia genus are grown in Greece. Most of them are referred as Greek sage, three-lobe sage, etc. • Medicinal uses: The leaves are antihydrotic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cholagogue, depurative, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic and vasodilator. They are used internally in the treatment of digestive and respiratory complaints, menstrual problems, infertility, nervous tension and depression. This remedy should not be prescribed to pregnant women. The infusion of its leaves is recommended for relieving headache, stomachache, rheumatic pains. The infusions and decoctions of leaves or flowering shoots are used as a blood depurative and recommended for circulatory troubles. This plant is extremely popular for treatment of heart disorders, colds, cough and influenza. It is used as a vulnerary cicatrizant, antiseptic, for cure of external Salvia fruticosa Mill.: Habit. wounds, swellings and dropsy. This species was cited in the ancient literature as haemostatic, cicatrizant, antiseptic, a remedy for sore throat and antipruriginose. • Phytochemical composition: The plant is rich in essential oil; it contains 1,8-cineole (predominant component), β-myrcene, α-pinene, β-pinene, camphene, α-thujone, β-thujone and camphor. Other non-volatile components are simple phenolics (including rosmarinic acid) and flavonoids. 79 Salvia officinalis L. subsp. officinalis Sp. Pl.: 23. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Salvia chromatica Hoffmanns., Salvia clusii Vilm., Salvia cretica L., Salvia digyna Stokes, Salvia grandiflora Ten., nom. illeg., Salvia hispanica Garsault, des. inval., Salvia minor Garsault, des. inval., Salvia papillosa Hoffmanns., Salvia tricolor Vilm. • Traditional English: Some of the best known include Sage, Common sage, Garden sage, Golden sage, Kitchen sage, True sage, Culinary sage, Dalmatian sage, and Broadleaf sage. Salvia and “sage” are derived from the Latin salvere (to save), referring to the healing properties long attributed to the various Salvia species. • Systematic description: Erect, subglabrous to densely hirsute perennial 15-100 cm. Leaves 30-120 x 15-50 mm, oblong to ovate-oblong, cordate at base, coarsely crenate or crenate dentate. Verticillasters in a dense spike, sometimes interrupted below. Calyx 5-9 (-12) mm; teeth ¼-¾ as long as tube. Corolla 12-18 mm, bright reddish-purple, rarely pink or white; tube exceeding calyx; upper lip entire. 2n = 16. 80 • Geographical distribution: It ccurs in most of Europe. It is a Mediterranean plant with distribution to central and west Mediterranean and to West Balkan peninsula. In Greece, it is found in NW and SC country with its best populations mostly in north and west Greece. More than 22 species of Salvia genus are grown in Greece. Most of them are referred as greek sage, as “salvia pomifera” etc. • Medicinal uses: The plant has stomachic, tonic and και cordial properties, and it is used against neuralgia. It is extremely tonic due to the included tannins. It is a good medicine against debility of stomach and intestine, and disinfectant and expectorant for colds. It is considered as a memory stimulant and it combats dullness. Sage benefits the hair and it is astringent as a face mask. Its decoctions is used for the treatment of gingivitis and skin complaints. The essential oil is used to relief from Salvia officinalis L. subsp. officinalis: Representative inflorescence. tooth pain. Sage, also, acts repressively in the secretion of mammary glands and in a small percent against diabetes. Sage is traditionally used as a decoction for washing the mouth in case of mouth injuries (stomatitis, sore throat, gingivitis) and internally as antihydrotic (especially against night sweat of patients with tuberculosis and nervous breakdown), while in small doses it is used as stomachic, anticonvulsant, carminative, diuretic. Based on long-standing use, European Medicines Agency recognised that Salvia officinalis leaves can be used as a traditional herbal medicinal product for symptomatic treatment of mild dyspeptic complaints such as heartburn and bloating, for relief of excessive sweating, for the symptomatic treatment of inflammations in the mouth or the throat and for relief of minor skin inflammations. • Phytochemical composition: The plant is rich in essential oil. The predominant volatile components are α- and β-thujone, which are neurotoxic. As a result there are concerns and limitations for the amount and quantity used. Other major non-volatile components are tannins, diterpene bitter principles, triterpenes, steroids, flavones, and flavonoid glycosides. Sambucus nigra L. Sp. Pl. 269 (1753). • Family: Caprifoliaceae • Synonyms: Sambucus caerulea Raf. • Traditional English: Elder, Elderberry, Black elder, European elder, European elderberry and European black elderberry. • Systematic description: Shrub or small tree up to 10 m, with brownish-grey, sulcate, corky bark and whitish pith. Stems often with vigorous, erect shoots from base; branches often arching. Leaflets 5-7(-9), 4,5-12(-18) x 2-6(-10) cm, ovate, ovate-lanceolate or ovate-elliptical, acuminate, serrate, sparsely pubescent beneath. Stipules absent or very small, subulate. Inflorescence 10-24 cm in diameter, corymbose, with (4-)5 primary rays. Corolla white. Anthers yellowish-white. Fruit globose, black (very rarely red). 2n = 36. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe except the extreme north. [All except Bl Cr Fa Is Rs (N) Sb, but only naturalized in Fe No Su]. Although undoubtedly native in damp woods over a large part of Europe, it has been widely cultivated for its fruits. It occurs in hedgerows, scrub, woods, roadsides, waste places etc, especially on disturbed base-rich and nitrogen rich soils. • Medicinal uses: Elder has a very long history of household use as a medicinal herb and is also much used by herbalists. The plant has been called “the medicine chest” of country people. The flowers are the main part used in modern herbalism, though all parts of the plant have been used at times. The traditional medicinal uses of elderberry against cold, as laxative, as purgative, as sudorific, as diuretic and as emetic have been documented in scientific literature and several writings. It is also used in the treatment of constipation and arthritic conditions. An emollient ointment is made from the green inner bark. It has also expectorant and hemostatic properties. The juice is said to be a good treatment for inflamed eyes. An ointment made from the leaves is emollient and is used in the treatment of bruises, sprains, chilblains, wounds etc. The fresh flowers are used in the distillation of “Elder Flower Water”. The water is mildly astringent and a gentle stimulant. It is mainly used as a vehicle for eye and skin lotions. The dried flowers are diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, galactogogue and pectoral. An infusion is very effective in the treatment of chest complaints and is also used to bathe inflamed eyes. The Sambucus nigra L.: Fruit cluster. infusion is also a very good spring tonic and blood cleanser. The flowers are used in poultices to ease pain and abate inflammation. Used as an ointment, it treats chilblains, burns, wounds, scalds etc. A tea made from the dried berries is said to be a good remedy for colic and diarrhea. European Medicines Agency allows the circulation of dried flowers (for the preparation of herbal teas) and of ethanolic extracts and tinctures for the relief of early symptoms of common cold. • Phytochemical composition: The fruit of S. nigra contains several components that may contribute to pharmacological activity, but the main components are polyphenols. Large amounts of anthocyanins (mainly glycosides of cyanidin) are present in fresh fruits, in addition to small amounts of flavonols and flavonol esters. The seeds contain lectins, and the fruits, cyanogenic glycosides depending on the maturation stage. Other ingredients are vitamins and minerals in small amounts, carbohydrates such as pectin, glucose and fructose, and 0.01% essential oil. Flavonoids and caffeic acid derivatives are the main components of elderflower (up to 3% each). Apart form polyphenols, other elderflower ingredients are triterpenes (amyrins, sterols, oleanolic and ursolic acids), minerals, mucilage, plastocynin (protein), pectin, sugars and volatile oil (0.03-0.14%). 81 Saponaria officinalis L. Sp. Pl.: 408. 1753 • Family: Caryophyllaceae. • Synonyms: Saponaria aenebia Heldr., Saponaria alluvionalis Du Moulin • Traditional English: Common Soapwort, Bouncing Bet, Sweet William, and Soapweed. The scientific name Saponaria is derived from the Latin sapo (stem sapon-) meaning “soap,” which, like its common name, refers to its utility in cleaning. From this same Latin word is derived the name of the toxic substance saponin, contained in the roots. • Systematic description: Perennial; stems 30- 90 cm, erect, usually glabrous, simple or branced above. Leaves ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 3- veined, acute. Inflorence condensed, with opposite branches bearing few- flowered dichasia; flowers large, shortly pedicellate, usually flesh- coloured. Calyx c. 20 mm, glabrous or rarely hairy, green or reddish; teeth triangular, acute. Limb of petal c. 10 mm, more or less entire. 2n = 28. • Geographical distribution: Europe, from Belgium, N. Germany and C. Russia southwards; frequently cultivated, often as a variant flore pleno, and naturalized in many places in the north. [Al Au Be Bl Bu Co Cr Cz Ga Ge Gr He Hs Hu It Ju Lu Po Rm Rs (C, W, K, E) Sa Si Tu (*Br Da Fe Hb No *Rs -B- Su)]. It is a plant distributed in whole Europe, Asia and North America. In the area of study it is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Elia, Zante and Cephalonia. 82 • Medicinal uses: Soapwort’s main medicinal use is as an expectorant, for coughs/bronchitis. Its strongly irritant action is thought to stimulate the cough reflex and increase the production of a more fluid mucus within the respiratory passages. The whole plant, but especially the root, is considered alterative, antiscrophulatic, cholagogue, depurative, diaphoretic, mildly diuretic, expectorant, purgative, sternutatory and tonic. A decoction of the whole plant can be applied externally to treat itchy skin. The plant has proved of use in the treatment of jaundice and other visceral obstructions. The root is harvested in the spring and can be dried for later use. Saponaria officinalis L.: Εικόνα του φυτού στη φύση. • Phytochemical composition: The major components are triterpenoid saponins, whereas the presence of ribosome-inactivating proteins has been reported. Sideritis clandestina subsp. peloponnesiaca (Boiss. & Heldr.) Baden in Strid & Kit Tan (Eds.), Mount. Fl. Greece 2: 88. 1991 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Sideritis theezans var. cyllenea Heldr. ex Boiss., Sideritis clandestina var. cyllenea (Heldr. ex Boiss.) Hayek, Sideritis peloponnesiaca Boiss. & Heldr., Sideritis theezans subsp. peloponnesiaca (Boiss. & Heldr.) Nyman, Sideritis clandestina subsp. cyllenea (Heldr. ex Boiss.) Papan. & Kokkini. • Traditional English: Greek Mountain Tea, Ironwort, Mountain tea and Shepherd’s tea. The name “sideritis” (ironwort) derives from the Greek word for iron, σίδηρος (SEE-thee-ros) because sideritis was considered a great “remedy against trauma from iron weapons,” that is to say wounds of war in ancient times. Dioscorides advises the herbal infusion of “mountain tea” to soldiers as a rejuvenating, regenerating aid to help them heal quicker and fuller. • Systematic description: Perennial 15-40 cm. Yellowish indumentum. Lower leaves 25-50 x 8-20 mm, oblong-spathulate to obovate, entire or crenulate; middle and upper leaves 30-70 x 6-12 mm, oblong-elliptical, entire. 4-10 distant verticillasters, many-flowered. Middle bracts 10-20 mm (including acumen), exceeding the flowers, broadly ovate to suborbicular; acumen 4-10 mm, sparsely or densely lanate. Calyx 9-11 mm; teeth 3,5-4,5 mm, slightly shorter than tube. Corolla 10-15 mm, yellow. • Geographical distribution: Mountain rocks. S. Greece (N and NC Peloponnese). [Gr]. It is an endemic species with distribution in the mountains of N and NC Peloponnese (Helmos, Erymanthos, Cyllini, Oligyrtos, Maenalo, Mavrovouni, Dourdouvana). In the area of study it is found in Achaia and Elia. • Medicinal uses: In ancient times Sideritis was a generic reference for plants capable of healing wounds caused by iron weapons during battles. Traditional medicine, considers the decoction of the plants of genus Sideritis as soothing, sedative, stomachic, analgesic, Sideritis clandestina subsp. peloponnesiaca (Boiss. & Heldr.) Baden: Habit. anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and it is used for the treatment of cold, swellings, and for the good function of respiratory system. Sideritis purpurea Talbot ex Benth (W. part of Balkan peninsula), Sideritis scardica Griseb. (C. part of Balkan peninsula. Al Bu Gr Ju.), Sideritis raeseri Boiss. & Heldr. subsp. raeseri ( S Europe, Al Gr Ju) have similar medicinal properties and also exist in our study area. • Phytochemical composition: Ironwort active components include diterpenoids, flavonoids, and its essential oils. Significant research has been done on ironwort confirming its popular use to prevent colds, flu, and allergies. Also, modern tests have indicated that the tisane helps in the prevention of osteoporosis, and show its anxiolytic action. 83 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Fruct. Sem. Pl. 2: 378. 1791 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Carduus marianus L., Carduus marianus L., Mariana lactea Hill, Centaurea dalmatica Fraas, Silybum pygmaeum Cass. • Traditional English: Blessed milk thistle, Marian Thistle, Mary Thistle, Saint Mary’s Thistle, Mediterranean Milk Thistle, Variegated Thistle and Scotch Thistle. • Systematic description: Stem 20-150 cm, rarely shorter, glabrous or slightly arachnoid-pubescent, green. Basal leaves 25-50 x 12-25 cm, pinnatifid, glabrous or glabrescent, petiolate; cauline leaves smaller, less deeply divided, auriculate-amplexicaul, sessile, with yellowish-white spines up to 8 mm. Capitula 2,5-4 cm; peduncles long, erect, ebracteate or with few, small, leaf-like bracts; outer and middle involucral bracts with appendages 8-15 x 6-10 mm, gradually tapered into recurved, canaliculate spines 20-50 mm. Achenes 6-8 x 2,5-4 mm, shiny, black, with grey spots; pappus 15-20 mm. 2n = 34. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region and S. W. Europe; cultivated for ornament and naturalized or casual throughout a large part of Europe. [Al Bl Bu Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si Tu (Be Br Cz He Ho Rm Rs -C,W,K,E-)]. Roadsides, waste places and cultivated ground. It is a common plant with distribution in the Mediterranean region and SW Europe. In Greece, it is found almost everywhere. In the area of study, it is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Elia, Cephalonia and Zante. 84 • Medicinal uses: Blessed thistle has a long history of use in the West as a remedy for liver problems. Recent research has confirmed that it has a remarkable ability to protect the liver from damage resulting from alcoholic and other types of poisoning. It is used internally in the treatment of liver and gall bladder diseases, jaundice, cirrhosis, hepatitis and poisoning. Silymarin, an extract from the seed containing the bioactive flavonolignans, acts on the membranes of the liver cells preventing the entry of virus toxins and other toxic compounds and Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.: Representative inflorescence (head), with spiny appentages. thus preventing damage to the cells. It also dramatically improves liver regeneration in hepatitis, cirrhosis, mushroom poisoning and other diseases of the liver. Seed extracts are produced commercially in Europe. A homeopathic remedy is obtained from equal parts of the root and the seed with its hulls still attached. It is described in pharmacopoeias that Silybum marianum can also be used for dyspeptic complaints and gallstones. Treatment of amenorrhoea, constipation, diabetes, hay fever, uterine haemorrhages and varicose veins have been described in folk medicine. • Phytochemical composition: The major active constituents of the seeds are flavonolignans (1.5-3.0%), collectively known as silymarin. Silymarin is a complex mixture of polyphenolic molecules, including seven closely related flavonolignans (silybin A, silybin B, isosilybin A, isosilybin B, silychristin, isosilychristin, silydianin) and one flavonoid. Sinapis alba L. subsp. alba Sp. Pl.: 668. 1753 • Family: Brassicaceae. • Synonyms: Leucosinapis alba (L.) Spach • Traditional English: White mustard. Species name Sinapis is Latin for mustard, from the Greek sinapis. Species name Alba is from Old English albe, from the Latin alba (feminine of albus “white”). • Systematic description: Annual; stems up to 80 cm, usually with stuff, deflexed hairs, sometimes glabrous. Leaves usually hispid but not scabrid, all petilate. Siliqua 20-40 x 3-6,5 mm, patent; beak 10-30 mm, attenuate. Seeds 4-8. • Geographical distribution: Native in the Mediterranean region and Krym; naturalized throughout the rest of Europe but becoming rare or only casual in the north. [All except Az, Sb, Tu; only casual in Fa, Fe, Is, Rs (N)]. A weed of arable and waste land, especially on calcareous soils. In our region it is found in Aetolia, Achaia, Elia, Cephalonia, Ithaca and Zante. • Medicinal uses: The seed is antibacterial, antifungal, appetizer, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, rubefacient and stimulant. It is used in the treatment of coughs with profuse phlegm and tuberculosis, pleurisy. The seed is seldom used internally as a medicine in the west. Externally it is usually made into mustard plasters (using the ground seed), poultices or added to the bath water. It is used in the treatment of respiratory infections, arthritic joints, chilblains and skin eruptions etc. The leaves are carminative. • Phtyochemical composition: The plant is well known for its glucosinolate components, although other phytochemicals like volatile components, phenolics and flavonoids are also abundant. Glucosinolates are hydrolysed to isothiocyanate compounds, which are responsible for mustard’s pungency. Sinapis alba L. ssp. alba: Flowers and immature fruits. 85 Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. Fl. Carniol., ed. 2, 2: 26. 1772 • Family: Brassicaceae. • Synonyms: Erysimum officinale L., Chamaeplium officinale (L.) Wallr., Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. var. officinale, Sisymbrium officinale var. leiocarpum DC. • Traditional English: Hedge Mustard, Hedge Wild Mustard, Wire-weed, Tumble Weed. • Systematic description: Annual or biennial 5-90 cm. Lower leaves pinnatisect, more or less ovate in outline, with large terminal lobe. Pedicels 1-2 mm. petals 2-4 mm; anthers c. 0,7 mm; ovary with 10-20 ovules. Siliqua (8-)10-20 mm, conical- cylindrical, straight, attenuate into style; style 0,5- 1 mm. Seeds c. 1 mm. 2n = 14. • Geographical distribution: Throughout Europe, northwards to c. 68⁰ N. [All except Fa Sb; introduced in Is]. In our country it is native with distribution across all country. It is found in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia, Cephalonia, Ithaca and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: The whole plant is said to be tonic, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, and stomachic. This plant was once known as the ‘singer’s plant’ because of its use in treating loss of the voice. A strong infusion of the whole plant has been used in the treatment of throat complaints. Moreover in antiquity the herbal drug was reputed to possess anticancer properties. The dried plant is almost inactive, so it should only be used when freshly harvested. 86 • Phytochemical composition: Volatile and non-vol- atile phenylpropanes, monoterpenes, flavonoids, and polysaccharides are present but the most characteristic bioactive components are the glucosinolates (putranjivine is predominant). Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop.: Stems with flowers. Taraxacum pindicola (Bald.) Hand.-Mazz. Monogr. Taraxacum: 107. 1907 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Taraxacum vulgare var. pindicola Bald, Taraxacum laevigatum subsp. pindicola (Bald.) Hayek. • Traditional English: Dandelion. Dandelion is from a French phrase dent de lion, from Latin dens leonis “lion’s tooth” - based on the deeply toothed edges of the leaves of this weed. • Systematic description: Leaves 5-40 cm, entire to very laciniate, often large and coarse, never thin, never spotted; lobes usually more or less triangular; petiole often winged. Scapes 5-40 cm, stout, erect or ascending, usually hairy. Capitulum 25-75 mm in diameter, often convex. Involucre 12-25 x 15-25 mm; outer bracts up to 17 mm, linear-lanceolate, usually rather dark, more or less glaucous green, paler on inner surface, pale margin often present but never conspicuous, erect to deflexed, ecorniculate or slightly callosed. Ligules long, narrow, medium yellow, usually with a brownish stripe. Achenes brownish; body 2,5-3,5 mm, tuberculate or spinulose; cone 0,2-0,7 mm, conical; beak 7-15 mm, slender. • Geographical distribution: It occurs in disturbed ground, meadows and woods. [Al Gr Ju]. In Greece, it is found in the mainland. In the study area, it occurs in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia. • Medicinal uses: All parts of the plant, but especially the root, are slightly aperient, cholagogue, depurative, strongly diuretic, hepatic, laxative, stomachic and tonic. The root is also cholagogue, hypoglycaemic and a weak antibiotic against yeast infections. A tea can be made from the leaves or, more commonly, from the roots. The plant is used internally in the treatment of gall bladder and urinary disorders, gallstones, jaundice, cirrhosis, dyspepsia with constipation, oedema associated with high blood pressure and heart weakness, chronic joint and skin complaints, gout, eczema and acne. The latex contained in the plant sap can be used to remove corns, warts and verrucae. The latex has a specific action on in- Taraxacum pindicola (Bald.) Hand.-Mazz.: Habit. flammations of the gall bladder and is also believed to remove stones in the liver. European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved the circulation of herbal preparations containing the dandelion leaves or their extracts as a traditional herbal medicinal product to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract as an adjuvant in minor urinary complaints. Furthermore, EMA approved the use of preparations of the roots and the leaves in traditional herbal medicinal products for a) the relief of symptoms related to mild digestive disorders (such as feeling of abdominal fullness, flatulence, and slow digestion) and temporary loss of appetite, and b) to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract as an adjuvant in minor urinary complaints. • Phytochemical composition: A variety of sesquiterpenes (include lactones), sterols, simple phenolics (acids and esters) and flavonoids are present in both roots and leaves. A high potassium level has also been determined. 87 Teucrium capitatum L. subsp. capitatum Sp. Pl.: 566. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Chamaedrys capitata (L.) Raf., Polium capitatum (L.) Mill., Teucrium polium subsp. capitatum (L.) Arcang. • Traditional English: Cat thyme Germander, Felty Germander, Hulwort, Mountain Germander. Teucrium probably named for Teucer (Teukros), the son of King Telamon of Salamis and his second wife Hesione, daughter of King Laomedon of Troy. He fought alongside his half-brother, Aias, in the Trojan War and is the legendary founder of the city Salamis on Cyprus. • Systematic description: Dwarf shrub. Stems 10-25 cm, with grey-hairy, often densely so. Leaves 7-27 mm, narrowly oblong to narrowly obovate, flat or with revolute margins, with 2-5(-9) crenations, fasciculate, the margins more or less revolute. Flowers in a simple or compound head. Bracts leaf-like. Calyx (2,5-)3-5 mm, densely and evenly hairy. Corolla white or red; proximal lobes rounded or triangular, glabrous or hairy. 2n = 26, 52, 78. • Geographical distribution: Dry places. S. Europe, extending northwards to c. 51° N. in S.C. Russia. [Al Bl Bu Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Lu Rm Rs (C, W, K, E) Sa Si Tu]. In Greece, it is native in Greek mainland and in Greek insular. In our study area, it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aitoloakarnania, Zakynthos, Ithaki and Kefalonia. • Medicinal uses: In traditional medicine, Teucrium 88 capitatum has been used to treat diabetes, hyperlipidemia and hypertension. Furthermore, it is used as carminative, anti-convulsant, anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and antimicrobial. • Phytochemical composition: Teucrium essential oil is rich in sesquiterpenes; caryophyllene and carvacrol predominate. The plant is rich in diterpenes and flavonoids. Teucrium capitatum L. subsp. capitatum: Habit. Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. Elench. Pl. Horti Matr.: 37. 1803 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Satureja capitata L., Coridothymus capitatus (L.) Rchb. f., Origanum capitatum (L.) Kuntze, Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link. • Traditional English: Conehead Thyme, Headed Savory, Persian Hyssop, Spanish Oregano. • Systematic description: Dwarf shrub 20-50(-150) cm, with ascending to erect woody branches bearing axillary leaf-clusters (often the only leaves during the dry season). Leaves of long shoots 6-10 x 1-1,2 mm, sessile, linear, acute, subglabrous, sparsely ciliate at base; lateral veins not visible. Inflorescence oblong-conical; bracts c. 6 x 2 mm, imbricate, ovate to lanceolate, greenish, ciliate; bracteoles c. 6 mm, similar to the leaves. Calyx about 5 mm, the upper lip shorter than the lower, all the teeth ciliate. Corolla up to 10 mm, purplish-pink,the upper lip bifid. 2n = 30. Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. Elench: Head with flowers. • Geographical distribution: Calcicole. Mediterranean region, Portugal. [Al Bl Co Cr Gr Hs It Ju Lu Sa Si Tu]. In the study area, it occurs in Achaia, Ilia, Aetolia, Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaca. • Medicinal uses: The leaves, and especially the essential oil contained in them, are strongly antiseptic, deodorant and disinfectant. Conehead thyme is a warming, astringent herb that is expectorant, improves digestion, relaxes spasms and controls coughing. It has strong antiseptic and antifungal properties. Internally used for dry coughs, whooping coughs, bronchitis, bronchial catarrh, asthma, laryngitis, indigestion, gastritis and diarrhea and enuresis in children. Externally used as a gargle for tonsillitis and gum disease and as a wash for wounds and skin problems like fungal infections. • Phytochemical composition: The plant (especially the leaves) is rich in essential oil. The main component is carvacrol, whereas other components are monocyclic and bicyclic monoterpenes, acyclic monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Apart from essential oil, the plant contains various polyphenols. 89 Thymus leucotrichus Halácsy subsp. leucotrichus Consp. Fl. Graec. 2: 561. 1902 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Thymus vulgaris L., Thymus leucotrichus var. austroanatolicus Jalas. • Traditional English: Thyme. • Systematic description: A seldom-collected plant of the high mountains of C. & S. Greece, with leaves linear-lanceolate, sessile, covered by long and short hairs, and purplish bracts twice as long as leaves. Inflorescence sub- globular. Corolla roseate purplish, barely protruding from sepals • Geographical distribution: It is native in Bulgaria, Greece, Libanon, Syria and Turkey. In our study area, it occurs plentifully as a native in Epirus (at low altitudes). • Medicinal uses: It is used as a strong antioxidant for food and medicine. The essential oil has antimicrobial, antifungal (it is proved that thymol is effective for the treatment of nail fungus) and heart- revitalizing properties. It may, also, used for the treatment of bronchitis and cough. • Phytochemical composition: It mainly consists of thymol, gamma-terpinene, p-cymene, linalool, myrcene, alpha-pinene, eugenol, carvacrol and alpha-thujene. 90 Thymus leucotrichus Halácsy subsp. leucotrichus Habit Tilia tomentosa Moench Verz. Ausl. Bδume Weissenst. 136 (1785) • Family: Tiliaceae. • Synonyms: Tilia alba Aiton., Tilia argentea Desf. ex DC. • Traditional English: Silver Lime. • Systematic description: Up to 30 m, broadly pyramidal. Young twigs tomentose. Leaves 8-10 cm, suborbicular-cordate, serrate, biserrate or slightly lobed, dark green and glabrescent above, white-tomentose with stellate hairs beneath; petiole usually less than half as long as lamina. Bract lanceolate to oblong, subsessile. Flowers dull white, in pendent cymes of 6-10. Staminodes present. Fruit 6-8 mm, usually ovoid, minutely verrucose. • Geographical distribution: Balkan peninsula, extending northwards to N. Hungary and W. Ukraine; often planted elsewhere for ornament. [Al Bu Gr Hu Ju Rm Rs (W) Tu]. • Medicinal uses: It has diuretic, expectorant, cholagogue and relaxing properties, it lowers high blood pressure, increases perspiration and improves digestion. It is used externally and acts effectively is cases of high blood pressure, arteriosclerosis, heart and digestive disorders, which are followed by anxiety, urinary inflammations, influenza, catarrh, migraine, nervous distress and headaches. Infusion, which is prepared from flowers and leaves, is effective for cold with fever, sniffle, cough, influenza, phlegm, bronchitis, etc. Due to its perspirational and diuretic properties, the flowers are used in cases of kidney and urinary diseases. They, also, relieve pains, improve digestive function, boost immune system, help preventing heart diseases and have positive effect on lowering cholesterol and loose arteries. • Phytochemical composition: Flowers and leaves contain demulcent agents, volatile oils rich in farnezole, gluconic, sugar, astringent substances and substances similar with vitamin E. Tilia tomentosa Moench.: Inflorescences. 91 Tordylium apulum L. Sp. Pl.: 239. 1753 • Family: Apiaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Mediterranean hartwort, Roman Pimpernel. • Systematic description: Stout, softly and rather sparsely pubescent annual 20-50 cm. Stem densely hairy at base, with sparse long hairs above. Leaves pinnate; lower with ovate, deeply crenate segments; uppermost with linear, entire segments. Rays 3-8. Bracts and bracteoles much shorter than the rays, several, subulate, stiffly ciliate. Outer flowers with one petal larger than the others (4-6 mm), more or less equally 2-lobed and appearing like 2 large petals. Fruit 5-8 mm, with soft, vesicular hairs; wing with a thin inner part; thickened margin corrugated, minutely papillose. • Geographical distribution: Mediterranean region. [Al Bl Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It JuSa Si Tu]. • Medicinal uses: It is used for combating hair loss, for bronchial and nervous diseases, as an expectorant, and also for accelerating the menstrual cycle. • Phytochemical composition: Sixty-seven compounds were identified representing 96.5% of the oil. From these, the major components of the essential oil of Tordylium apulum are α-humulene, octyl hexanoate and farnesyl acetone. 92 Tordylium apulum L.: Representative composite inflorescence. Tussilago farfara L. Sp. Pl.: 865. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Tussilago alpestris Hegetschw., Tussilago umbertina Borbás. • Traditional English: Tash Plant, Ass’s foot, Bull’s foot, Butterbur, Coughwort, Farfara, Foal’s foot, Foalswort, Horse Foot, Winter heliotrope. Sometimes it is confused with Petasites frigidus, or Western Coltsfoot. The genus name “Tussilago” is derived from the Latin word “tussis” meaning “cough” for which the plant is supposed to provide a cure. • Systematic description: Rhizomes long, whitish, scaly, bearing rosettes of leaves. Leaves 10-20(-30) cm, suborbicular, shallowly sinuately lobed and irregularly denticulate, cordate at base, green but thinly floccose above when young, persistently whitish-lanate beneath; petiole sulcate on adaxial surface. Scapes 4-15 cm, elongating in fruit, axillary, with numerous purplish scales, floccose, appearing before the leaves, erect in bud, nodding after anthesis. Involucre c. 10 mm; bracts numerous, linear-lanceolate, obtuse, purplish and with a scarious margin. Achenes c. 3 mm. 2n = 60. • Geographical distribution: Almost throughout Europe. [All except Az Bl Cr Lu]. Damp places, particularly on clay soils. It is native in our country and occurs to a great extent in Greece. In our study area it occurs in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. • Medicinal uses: As an effective demulcent and expectorant herb, coltsfoot is one of the most popular European remedies for the treatment of coughs and respiratory problems, i.e. asthma, bronchitis, laryngitis, pertussis, influenza, and lung congestion. Some people inhale coltsfoot for coughs and wheezing. Leaves and the flowering stems are used. They are rich in mucilage and are the main parts used, though the root is also sometimes employed. The mucilage most likely is responsible for the demulcent effect of the plant. A bitter, tonic and diaphoretic preparation can be obtained from Tussilago farfara L.: Flowering stems. the root. The leaves are harvested in June and early July, the flowers are harvested when fully open and the root is harvested in the autumn. All can be dried and used as required. Coltsfoot is particularly effective when used in combination with liquorice (Glycyrrhiza species), thyme (Thymbra capitata) and wild cherry (Prunus serotina). A poultice of the flowers has a soothing effect on a range of skin disorders including eczema, ulcers, sores, bites and inflammations. • Phytochemical composition: A variety of sesquiterpenes has been isolated from coltsfoot in addition to hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins, flavonoids and polysaccharides. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been determined. 93 Urtica dioica L. Sp. Pl.: 984. 1753 • Family: Urticaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Common nettle or Stinging nettle. • Systematic description: Lamina usually with stinging hairs, often also more or less pilose, if not, only sparsely pilose, mainly on nerves, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, rounded, cuneate or cordate at base. Stipules 1-2(-3) mm wide. Lowest node of inflorescence at the 7th-14th whorl. 2n = 48, 52, rarely 26. • Geographical distribution: Nitrophilous habitats, ruderal places, damp woods. Throughout Europe, but only as an introduced weed in some districts. [All except Az Bl Cr Sb]. • Medicinal uses: According to European Medicines Agency (EMA), the dried nettle is considered as a part of human diet. It has diuretic, hypotensive, antiplatelet, cholesterol-lowering, liver-protective, antioxidant, antimicrobial, analgetic, antirheumatic and antiulceral properties. • Phytochemical composition: Nettle is rich in metal sals: calcium, copper, choline, potassium, silicon, sodium and iron. It contains 21- 23% proteins and 9- 21% vegetative fibers. 94 Urtica dioica L.: Inflorescences. Urtica urens L. Sp. Pl.: 984. 1753 • Family: Urticaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Common Nettle, Common Stinging Nettle, Great Stinging Nettle, Stinging Nettle. • Systematic description: Annual 5-60(-80) cm, clear green; monoecious. Leaves 1-4(-6) cm, ovate, rounded to cuneate at base, usually deeply serrate; petiole as long as the lamina; stipules 4 at each node. Racemes not more than 2 cm, usually not longer than the subtending petiole, appearing as few-flowered axillary clusters, with numerous female and few male flowers, erecto-patent in fruit. Perianth-segments of female flowers ciliate on the margin, glabrous or sparsely hispid on the back. 2n = 24, 26, 52. • Geographical distribution: Mainly on cultivated or disturbed soil. Throughout Europe, but doubtfully native in much of the north. [All except AzFa Sb]. • Medicinal uses: A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used as a tonic and blood purifier. The whole plant is antiasthmatic, antidandruff, astringent, depurative, diuretic, galactogogue, haemostatic, hypoglycaemic and a stimulating tonic. An infusion of the plant is very valuable in stemming internal bleeding, it is also used to treat anaemia, excessive menstruation, haemorrhoids, arthritis, rheumatism and skin complaints, especially eczema. Externally, the plant is used to treat arthritic pain, gout, sciatica, neuralgia, haemorrhoids, hair problems etc. For medicinal purposes, the plant is best harvested in May or June as it is coming into flower and dried for later use. The juice of the nettle can be used as an antidote to stings from the leaves and an infusion of the fresh leaves is healing and soothing as a lotion for burns. A useful first-aid remedy, it is used in the treatment of ailments such as bites and stings, burns, hives and breast feeding problems • Phytochemical composition: It contains gallic acid, formic acid, histamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, Vitamin A,C, K, tannins and mineral salts. Urtica urens L.: Habit. 95 Verbascum thapsus L. Sp. Pl.: 177. 1753 • Family: Scrophulariaceae. • Synonyms: Verbascum macrurum Lange, Verbascum simplex Hoffmanns. & Link. • Traditional English: Great mullein or Common mullein. • Systematic description: Biennial, more or less densely greyish- or whitish-tomentose; stem 30-200 cm. Basal leaves 8-50 x 2,5-14 cm, elliptic-to obovate-oblong, obtuse, entire or finely crenate; upper cauline leaves decurrent. Inflorescence usually simple.Bracts 12-18 mm, ovate to lanceolate, acuminate; pedicels partly adnate to stem. Calyx (5-)8-12 mm; lobes lanceolate. Corolla 12-35 mm in diameter.Stamens 5, the upper with villous filaments, the lower with glabrous to villous filaments and decurrent anthers; filament-hairs white.Stigma capitate. Capsule 7-10 mm, elliptic-ovoid. 2n = 32, 36. • Geographical distribution: Most of Europe except the extreme north and much of the Balkan peninsula. [Au Az Be Bl Br Co Cz Da Fe GaGeHb He Ho Hs Hu It Ju Lu No Po RmRs (N, B, C, W, K, E) Sa Si Su]. • Medicinal uses: The presence of flavonoids and saponins give at this plant diuretic and sedative properties, in fact a popular use of this herb was as diaphoretic and antirheumatic. The decoction of leaf was used for emollient baths. 96 • Phytochemical composition: It contains various chemical constituents like saponins, iridoid and phenylethanoid glycosides, flavonoids, vitamin C and minerals. Verbascum thapsus L.: Habit. Vinca major L. ssp. major Sp. Pl.: 209. 1753 • Family: Apocynaceae. • Synonyms: None. • Traditional English: Lesser periwinkle or Dwarf periwinkle, Small periwinkle, Common periwinkle. • Systematic description: Stems procumbent or ascending, over-wintering. Leaves 1,5-4,5 x 0,5-2,5 cm, mostly lanceolate or elliptical (but often ovate on trailing shoots), rounded or cuneate at base, evergreen, glabrous. Flowering stems up to 20 cm; pedicels often longer than the subtending leaves. Calyx-lobes 3-4(-5) mm, narrowly ovate to narrowly triangular, glabrous. Corolla-tube 9-11 mm; limb 25-30 mm in diameter, usually blue; lobes obliquely truncate. 2n = 46. • Geographical distribution: S., W. & C. Europe, extending eastwards to Lithuania and Krym. [Au Be Bu Co Cz Ga Ge Gr He Ho Hs Hu It Si Ju Lu Rm Rs (B, C, W, K) Po Si (Br Da Hb No Su Tu)]. • Medicinal uses: Diarrhea, Hypertension, Memory/ Focus, Menorrhagia The plant is astringent, bitter, detergent, sedative, stomachic and tonic. It contains the alkaloid ‘vincamine’, which is used by the pharmaceutical industry as a cerebral stimulant and vasodilator. It also contains ‘reserpine’, which reduces high blood pressure. It is used internally in the treatment of excessive menstruation, abnormal uterine bleeding, vaginal discharge and hardening of the arteries. It should not be given to patients with constipation. It is applied externally to vaginal discharge, nosebleed, sore throat and mouth ulcers. The plants are cut when flowering and dried for later use. The fresh flowers are gently purgative, but lose their effect on drying. The leaves, and seeds of the periwinkle contain vincamine, a precursor to the chemical vinpocetine, which is used medicinally to naturally enhance memory in aging minds. Vincamine is sold as a chemical extract in supplement form, however herbalists prefer the whole herb be used in either extract or tea form. Vinca minor L. ssp. major: Flowers. Other folk medicine uses include diabetes, cough, and as a styptic to stop bleeding. • Phytochemical composition: Vinca major contains alkaloids, which are the main bioactive compounds. Vincamine is the molecule responsible for Vinca’s nootropic activity. Other alkaloids include reserpine, reserpinine, akuammicine, majdine, vinerine, ervine, vineridine, tombozine, vincamajine, vincanine, vincanidine, vincamone, apovincamine, vincaminol, desoxyvincaminol, vincorine and perivincine. Vinpocetine (brand names: Cavinton, Intelectol; chemical name: ethyl apovincaminate) is a semisynthetic derivative alkaloid of vincamine. Apart from alkaloids, saponins, sterols, organic and phenolic acids have been detected.. 97 Vitex agnus-castus L. Sp. Pl.: 638. 1753 • Family: Verbenaceae • Synonyms: Agnus-castus robusta (Lebas) Carrière, Agnus-castus vulgaris Carrière, Vitex agnus Stokes, Vitex hybrida Moldenke, Vitex integra Medik., Vitex latifolia Mill., Vitex lupinifolia Salisb., Vitex pseudonegundo (Hausskn.) Hand.-Mazz., Vitex robusta Lebas, Vitex verticillata Lam. • Traditional English: Chaste Tree, Chasteberry, Abraham’s Balm or Monk’s Pepper, Agnus Castus, Safe tree, Hemp tree, Vitex. Chasteberry derives its common name from the belief that the plant inspires chastity. • Systematic description: 1-6 m, fragrant. Young twigs with 4 obtuse angles, grey-puberulent. Leaves petiolate, with 5-7 stipitate leaflets; leaflets 1,5-10 cm, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, whitish-tomentose beneath, glabrous above. Calyx and outside of corolla tomentose. Corolla 8-10 mm, blue or pink. Drupe globose, reddish-black, slightly longer than calyx. • Geographical distribution: S. Europe. [Al Bl Bu Co Cr Ga Gr Hs It Ju Rs (K) Sa Si Tu]. It is an Euromediterranean species. It is native in our country with a wide distribution in both Greek mainland and insular. In the study area it occurs in Aitoloakarnania, Achaia, Ilia, Kefalonia and Zakynthos. 98 • Μedicinal uses: Chasteberry is a popular treatment for the management of female reproductive disorders including corpus luteum insufficiency, premenstrual syndrome, menopausal symptoms, and insufficient milk production. It has been used to treat fibroid cyst, and to stop miscarriages caused by progesterone insufficiency. It acts upon the pituitary gland, reducing the production of estrogen and increasing the production of progesterone. The fresh berries have been pounded to a pulp and used in the form of a tincture for the relief of paralysis, pains in the limbs, weakness etc. Other uses include: reduced flatulence, suppress appetite and induce sleep. European Medicines Agency approved the use of Vitex Vitex agnus-castus L.: Habit. agnus-castus L., fructus (agnus castus fruit,powdered herbal substance, tincture, dry extracts) in traditional herbal medicinal products for the relief of minor symptoms in the days before menstruation. • Phytochemical composition: The main bioactive constitutents are iridoid glycosides (about 1%), diterpenes, flavonoids such as casticin (lipophilic) with a content of 0.02-2.0%, essential oil with main components (1525%) such as 1,8-cineole, limonene, α- and β-pinene; and triglycerides with α-linolenic, palmitic, oleic, stearic and linolenic acid. C ultivated Aromatic and Medicinal Plants 99 Allium sativum L. Sp. Pl.: 296. 1753 • Family: Amaryllidaceae. • Synonyms: Porrum sativum (L.) Rchb. • Traditional English: Softneck Garlic, Hardneck Garlic, Rocambole. The word garlic comes from Old English garleac, meaning “spear leek.” • Systematic description: Bulbs 3-6 cm in diameter, depressed-ovoid, composed of 5-15(-60) bulblets; outer tunics membranous. Stem 25-100(-200) cm. Leaves 6-12, up to 60 cm x 12(-30) mm, linear, flat, keeled, sheathing the lower ½ of the stem. Spathe up to 25 cm, 1-valved, with long beak, caducous. Umbel 2,5-5 cm in diameter, usually with few flowers (which often abort and wither in bud) and many bulbils; pedicels 10-20 mm, unequal. Perianth cup-shaped; segments 3-5 mm, greenish-white, pink, rarely white or purple, smooth, the outer lanceolate, acute, the inner ovate-lanceolate. Stamens included or equalling perianth; outer 3 filaments 6-8 mm, simple or tricuspidate, the inner 3 with the basal lamina broadly oblong, 1,5-2 mm wide and 1/3 as long to about as long as the central cusp, lateral cusps 2 or 4, much longer than the central cusp. • Geographical distribution: Garlic is native to Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan) and northeastern Iran. It has long been naturalized and it is cultivated widely in southern Europe and throughout the world. • Medicinal uses: Garlic appears to exert numerous effects on the cardiovascular system, and atherosclerosis in particular, beyond the reduction of serum lipids. Vasorelaxant properties of garlic have been noted in multiple pre-clinical studies. Also, animal studies have reported protective effects of garlic against hepatotoxins. There is some evidence that the chemical constituents containing allyl groups may be responsible for chemoprotective properties. Research has provided evidence of anti-proliferative effects of garlic on human cancer cell lines. Garlic has been demonstrated in vitro to exert activity Allium sativum L.: Inflorescences of flowering plants in cultivation. against multiple pathogens, including bacteria, resistant strains, mycobacteria, Helicobacter pylori, and fungi. Furthermore, in vitro studies have demonstrated effects against several viruses. • Phytochemical composition: Chemical analysis in the 1800s attributed garlic’s activity to the sulfur containing garlic oil. The sulfur compound alliin (S-allyl-Lcysteine sulfoxide) produces allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate) via the enzyme allinase when the bulb is crushed or ground. Other sulfur compounds, peptides, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenols have been identified. 101 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. Fl. Indica: 83. 1768 • Family: Xanthorrhoeaceae. • Synonyms: Aloe perfoliata var. vera L., Aloe barbadensis Mill., Aloe chinensis Steud. ex Baker, Aloe elongata Murray, Aloe flava Pers., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe lanzae Tod., Aloe littoralis J. König ex Baker, Aloe maculata Forssk., nom. illeg., Aloe rubescens DC., Aloe variegata Forssk., nom. illeg., Aloe vulgaris Lam., Aloe barbadensis var. chinensis Haw., Aloe perfoliata var. barbadensis (Mill.) Aiton. • Traditional English: Aloe. • Systematic description: Aloe vera is a stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60– 100 cm (24–39 in) tall, spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some varieties showing white flecks on their upper and lower stem surfaces. The margin of the leaf is serrated and has small white teeth. The flowers are produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm (35 in) tall, each flower being pendulous, with a yellow tubular corolla 2–3 cm (0,8– 1,2 in) long. • Geographical distribution: The natural range of A. vera is unclear, as the species has been widely cultivated throughout the world. 102 • Medicinal uses: Aloe vera leaf parenchyma (aloe gel) may be effective when used on the skin against psoriasis, burns, frostbite, and sores caused by the Herpes simplex virus. Research has shown that, taken orally, aloe gel can help to lower cholesterol levels in people with high cholesterol, and can help to lower blood glucose levels in people with type II diabetes. The green outer layer of the leaves of Aloe vera yields a bitter, yellow exudate which has very different properties from those of the colourless parenchyma. The bitter leaf exudate has traditionally been used as a laxative. However, research has indicated that the active constituents may have harmful effects and can interact with other medicines and herbal remedies. Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.: Inflorescences of flowering plants. • Phytochemical composition: Aloe vera leaves contain phytochemicals under study for possible bioactivity, such as acetylated mannans, polymannans, anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones, anthraquinones, such as emodin, and various lectins. Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott Sketch bot. S. Carolina 1:556. 1821 • Family: Rosaceae. Subfamily: Amygdaloideae. • Synonyms: Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Pers. var. nigra (Willd.) Seymour, Aronia nigra (Willd.) Koehne, Photinia melanocarpa (Michx.) K.R. Robertson & Phipps, Pyrus arbutifolia (L.) L. f. var. nigra Willd., Pyrus melanocarpa (Michx.) Willd., Sorbus melanocarpa (Michx.) Heynh. • Traditional English: Black Chokeberry, Chokeberry. The name “chokeberry” comes from the astringency of the fruits, which create a sensation making the mouth pucker. The preferred common name used by individuals who sell the berries or products made from them is “aronia berry” or simply “aronia.” • Systematic description: Small shrub 8-16 cm tall; Leaves are alternate on the stems, simple, 2,5- 7,5 cm in length and 1,9- 5 cm in width. They are obovate in shape (oval, but narrower at the base than near the tip), with fine and regular teeth along the edges. Their upper surfaces are dark green and lustrous, with dark glands on the upper surface of the midrib. Lower leaf surfaces are lighter green. Both surfaces are glabrous (smooth). The petioles are 0,7 cm or less in length. Leaves often grow only on the top 2/3 of plants. The leaves are bright green as they develop in spring, and they darken as the season progresses. Black chokeberry flowers have five white petals, and numerous pink stamens. As many as 30 flowers occur in each 5 cm diameter cluster. Black chokeberry fruits are 0,8-1,3 cm diameter, glossy and black when ripe. They hang down in clusters from red pedicels, with few-to-30 fruits per cluster. The fruits are pomes, and each contains 1-5 seeds. Shortly after maturation, the fruits shrivel, and most drop. • Geographical distribution: Aronia melanocarpa is native to eastern Canada, the Northeast of the US, the central Northeast of the US and the Southeast of the US. • Medicinal uses: Anthocyanins and other polyphenols from aronia may be potential used to combat oxidative stress in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. An- Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott: Mature berries of the plant. tioxidants can be useful in the protection of endothelial function, produce relaxant effect and improve platelet aggregation. Animal studies indicate that Aronia anthocyanins also may influence genotoxic activity and act as antimutagens. Medicinal teas from the berries or the leaves have been used in order to help people maintain visual acuity. The consumption of a diet low in fat and rich in antioxidants reduces the risk of obesity and insulin resistance. According to folk medicine, both diarrhea and constipation can be relieved with berries. Modern studies confirm that their tannin concentration helps reduce inflammation in the digestive tract. The consumption of anthocyanin- rich fruits is suggested for patients suffering from arthritis- and gut- related pain. • Phytochemical composition: Berries are full of flavonoids, trace minerals and phenolic phytochemicals and anthocyanins. Are high in content of procyanidins (tannins), anthocyanins and phenolic acids. Amygdalin, a glycoside isolated from berries, is responsible for the bitter-almond smell of the fresh fruits. 103 Artemisia dracunculus L. Sp. Pl.: 849. 1753 • Family: Asteraceae. Subfamily: Asteroideae. • Synonyms: Artemisia dracunculoides Pursh, Artemisia glauca Pall. ex Willd., Artemisia dracunculus ssp. dracunculus L., Artemisia dracunculus ssp. glauca (Pall. ex Willd.) H.M. Hall & Clem., Oligosporus dracunculus (L.) Poljakov, Oligosporus dracunculus ssp. dracunculinus (S. Watson) W.A. Weber, Oligosporus dracunculus ssp. glaucus (Pall. ex Willd.) A. Löve & D. Löve, Artemisia dracunculoides var. dracunculina (S. Watson) S.F. Blake, Artemisia glauca var. dracunculina (S. Watson) Fernald.. • Traditional English: French Tarragon, Little dragon, Dragon, Dragon’s wort, Herbaceous Sagewort, Pinon Wormwood, Wormwood, Green Sagewort, Silky Wormwood, Wormwood, Tarragon, Wild Tarragon. The name Tarragon is a corruption of the French Esdragon, derived from the Latin Dracunculus (a little dragon), which also serves as its specific name. First called “Estragon” derived from the Arabic word “tharkhoum’” and the Latin word “dracunculus” meaning “little dragon” probably from the way the roots curls up like a dragon. 104 • Systematic description: Aromatic, much-branched, glabrous, perennial 60-120 cm. Basal leaves 3-fid at apex, the rest 2-10 x 0,2-1 cm, linear to lanceolate, entire or weakly toothed. Capitula globose, pedunculate, recurved. Involucre 2-3 mm; outer bracts oblong-elliptical, almost entirely herbaceous; inner ovate, with a wide, scarious margin. Corolla yellowish. 2n = 18, 36, 90. • Geographical distribution: S. & E. parts of U.S.S.R.; widely cultivated for flavouring (tarragon) and locally naturalized. [Rs (C, W, E) Au Cz Ga Ge He Ju Rm Rs (?B, K)]. The species is widely cultivated across the world, mainly in southern Europe, Russia, and the United States. • Medicinal uses: Tarragon has been used medicinally since antiquity. Traditionally, tarragon has been used to treat tootaches, as a mild sedative, heart disease prevention aid and as an antidote for snakebites. Nowadays, it Artemisia dracunculus L.: Plant with immature inflorescences. is used in treatments of digestive complaints: it relieves stomach cramps, promotes appetite and production of bile. Tarragon is also used to promote menstruation, as a mild sedative and as a substitute for salt for people with high blood pressure. The root can be used in cases of aching teeth. In vivo studies mainly in rodents, highlight potential anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and antihyperglycemic effects. • Phytochemical composition: Key biologically active secondary metabolites are essential oils, coumarins, flavonoids, and phenylpropanoid acids. Methyleugenol, estragol, elemicin, and terpinolene are reported to be the prevalent essential oil constituents among various regional “varieties”. Additionally, sesquiterpenoids, vitamins, and tanning substances have also been reported. Coriandrum sativum L. Sp. Pl.: 256. 1753 • Family: Apiaceae. • Synonyms: Coriandrum majus Gouan, Coriandrum diversifolium Gilib., Coriandrum testiculatum Lour., Coriandrum globosum Salisb., Bifora loureirii Kostel., Coriandrum melphitense Ten. et Guss., Selinum coriandrum Krause. • Traditional English: Coriander (seed), Cilantro (leaf), Chinese Parsley, Cilantro, Dizzycorn, Japanese Parsley, Dhania. • Systematic description: Glabrous annual 15-50 cm, foetid when fresh. Sepals conspicuous, unequal. Petals white, the outer larger and deeply 2-lobed; apex inflexed. Segments of lower leaves ovate-cuneate, irregularly toothed; lobes of upper leaves linear. Rays 3-5(-10). Bracts 0 or 1; bracteoles usually 3, linear. Fruit mericarps not separating at maturity. Fruit 2-6 x 2-5,5 mm. 2n = 22. • Geographical distribution: Cultivated for its aromatic fruits and widely naturalized in S. Europe, more rarely or casual further north. [Au Az Cr Cz Ga Ge Gr He Hs Hu It Ju Lu Po Rm Rs (B, C, W, K, E) Si.] (N. Africa, W. Asia.) • Medicinal uses: The seeds were included in a host of prescriptions for fever, diarrhoea, vomiting, indigestion as in stomach and carminative. The volatile oil is carminative. It cures vertigo, syncope and memory loss. Coriander seeds have also been used to treat insomnia and anxiety because of its sedative effects. Leaves are aromatic, stimulant. Its paste, that is prepared by pounding green leaves with barley flour, is rich in vitamin A. It is given in watery eyes, mild laxative, useful in skin diseases if taken internally, and applied externally (paste is applied over swellings and boils);. also over cervical adenitis. Moreover, it is given in biliousness, intestinal irritations, heartburn, thirst and nausea. Its extract is antimicrobial and applied over ulcers and veneral sores. It is useful in spleen diseases, and carminative. Coriander juice is extremely advantageous in deficiencies of vitamin A, B, B2, C and iron. One to two teaspoons of coriander juice, Coriandrum sativum L.: Flowering plants. added to refreshing buttermilk, is incredibly beneficial in curing digestive disorders such as indigestion, nausea, dysentery, hepatitis and ulcerative colitis. Such gleaming benefits of coriander is also helpful in remedying typhoid fever. • Phytochemical composition: Fruits contain volatile oil. The major component of the oil is d-linalool (coriandrol). Other constituents present in fruits are fats made up of glycerides, a small amount of unsaponifiable matter, Δ-octadecenoic acid, proteins, starch, sugars, coumarins, flavonoid glycosides, tannins, chlorogenic and caffeic acids and others. Leaves contain less volatile oil than fruits, fats, proteins, sugars, coumarins and flavonoid glycosides similar to those in fruits, chlorogenic and caffeic acids, vitamin C and others. 105 Cuminum cyminum L. Sp. Pl.: 254. 1753 • Family: Apiaceae. • Synonyms: Cuminia cyminum J. F. Gmel., Cuminum aegyptiacum Mérat ex DC., Cuminum hispanicum Mérat ex DC., Cuminum odorum Salisb., Cuminum sativum J.Sm., Cyminon longeinvolucellatum St.-Lag., Selinum cuminum E.H. Crantz. • Traditional English: Cumin, Cummin, Roman Caraway. • Systematic description: An erect, slender herbaceous, subglabrous, annual, growing to 50 cm high with a long slender taproot. Leaves 2-3-pinnatisect; 4-6 cm long; ultimate segments filiform 3-6 x 0,05 cm; petiole bases with narrow membranous wings. Inflorescence a long stalked, compound, 3-15- rayed umbel, bracts and bracteoles 3-lobed atapex, slightly hairy; umbellules 6flowered; bracteoles subulate, 7-10 mm long. Flowers with 5- fid calyx segment unequal, linear-lanceolate, petals oblong-ovate, white or pink, 1 mm. Fruit ellipsoid to fusiform non-dehiscent achene, 4-6 mm long, yellowish-brown, sparsely pubescent; with longitudinal pale ribs. • Geographical distribution: It is native from the east Mediterranean to India. Cultivated in the Mediterranean region for its aromatic fruits and naturalized locally. [Ga Hs Si.] (N. Africa, S.W. Asia.). 106 • Medicinal uses: In traditional therapies, cumin as well as caraway seeds are prominently considered carminative, eupeptic, antispasmodic, astringent and used in the treatment of mild digestive disorders, diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence, morning sickness, colic, and are said to promote the assimilation of other herbs and to improve liver function. They are also used in bronchopulmonary disorders and as a cough remedy, as well as an analgesic. Vapors from caraway seeds are reported to give relief in patients suffering from lumbago and rheumatism. Modern biomedical research has shown the antioxidant properties of cumin and other multifaceted biological properties such as antimicrobial, antidiabetic and lipid Cuminum cyminum L.: Details of the inflorescence. lowering effects, anticarcinogenic/ antimutagenic, antistress, antiepileptic, analgesic, antiulcerogenic, etc. • Phytochemical composition: Variety of compounds have been revealed in essential oil, oleoresins and seeds. Majority of such compounds are monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, fatty acids, aldehydes, ketones and esters. The other components which occur in seed are triacylglycerols, polysaccharides, and lignin. Several nutrients such as vitamins, amino acids, protein, and minerals, starch, sugars and other carbohydrates, tannins, phytic acid and dietary fiber components have, also, been found in cumin seeds. Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench Methodus: 591. 1794 • Family: Asteraceae. Subfamily: Asteroideae. Synonyms: Brauneria purpurea (L.) Britton, Echinacea intermedia Lindl., E. purpurea (L.) Moench f., E. purpurea (L.) Moench var. arkansana Steyerm., E. speciosa Paxt., Rudbeckia purpurea L., R. hispida Hoffm., R. serotina Sweet. • Traditional English: Echinacea, Purple cone flower, Eastern purple coneflower, Broad-leaved purple coneflower, American Coneflower, Black Sampson, Comb Flower, Hedgehog, Indian Head, Rudbeckia, Sampson Head, Scurvy Root, snakeroot. The generic name is derived from the Greek word εχίνος (echino), meaning “sea urchin” or “hedgehog”, referring to sharp, spiny chaff on domed center of head. • Systematic description: Echinacea purpurea is a perennial herb growing up to 1,8 m tall and has a rhizome (underground stem). Above ground it has rough stems, which often branch near the top and bear soft, short hairs. Leaves arise from the base of the stem and are 15 x 10 cm with coarsely, irregularly toothed margins. Leaves arising from further up the stem are tapered towards their base. The flower heads (capitula) are up to 15 cm in diameter. The central disc-florets are orange. The outer, sterile, ray-florets are red-purple with green tips and 3-8 cm long. The flowers are pollinated by flying insects, including bees, wasps and butterflies. The fruit is an achene (small, dry, thin-walled fruit). • Geographical distribution: Echinacea purpurea is native to the Atlantic drainage area of the United States of America and Canada. It has been introduced as a cultivated medicinal plant in parts of north and eastern Africa and in Europe. • Medicinal uses: It has long been used to treat infections, for wound healing, to enhance immune system, for pain relief and alleviation of cold symptoms. Caffeic acid derivatives are effective antioxidants in free radical gen- Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench: Habit. eration systems and have an anti-inflammatory and anti hyaluronidase activity. Melanin is known for its immunostimulant action. There is some evidence that preparations based on the aerial parts might be effective for the early treatment of colds in adults but results are not fully consistent. European Medicines Agency approved its use as a traditional herbal medicinal product for the treatment of small superficial wounds and the root for the supportive treatment of common cold. • Phytochemical composition: A number of chemical entities have been identified, including alkamides, polyalkenes, polyalkynes, caffeic acid derivatives, and polysaccharides. The volatile oil contains, among other compounds, borneol, bornyl acetate, pentadeca-8-(Z)en-2-one, germacrene D, caryophyllene, and caryophyllene epoxide. Isobutylamides are found in the aerial parts. The caffeic acid ester derivative, chicoric acid, is the major active compound of this class found in the aerial parts. Chicoric acid methyl ester and other derivatives are, also, present. 107 Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Descr. Pl.: 426. 1802 • Family: Brassicaceae. • Synonyms: Brassica vesicaria L., Brassica erysimoides Spreng., Brassica hispida Ten., Brassica pinnatifida Desf., Eruca aurea Batt., Eruca cappadocica Boiss., Eruca deserti Pomel, Eruca lanceolata Pomel, Eruca longirostris R. Uechtr., Eruca orthosepala (Lange) Lange, Eruca pinnatifida (Desf.) Pomel, Eruca sativa Mill., Eruca stenocarpa Boiss. & Reut., Velleruca longistyla Pomel, Eruca sativa subsp. aurea (Batt.) Jahand. & Maire, Eruca sativa subsp. longirostris (R. Uechtr.) Jahand. & Maire, Eruca sativa subsp. pinnatifida (Desf.) Batt., Eruca sativa subsp. stenocarpa (Boiss. & Reut.) Jahand. & Maire, Eruca sativa subsp. vesicaria (L.) Jahand. & Maire. • Traditional English: Garden rocket or simply Rocket (British, Australian & New Zealand English), Eruca, Salad rocket, Rocketsalad, and Arugula (American and Canadian English). All English language names ultimately derive from the Latin word Eruca. 108 • Systematic description: It is an annual plant growing 20-100 cm. (8-39 in) in height. The leaves are deeply pinnately lobed with 4-10 small lateral lobes and a large terminal lobe. The flowers are 2-4 cm (0,8-1,6 in) in diameter; the petals are creamy white with purple veins, and the stamens yellow; the sepals are shed soon after the flower opens. The fruit is a siliqua (pod) 12–35 mm (0,5-1,4 in) long with an apical beak, and containing several seeds (which are edible). The species has a chromosome number of 2n = 22. • Geographical distribution: Native to the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal east to Lebanon and Turkey. • Medicinal uses: It is used against eye infections and to treat digestive and kidney problems. The leaves are depurative, antiscorbutic, diuretic, stimulant and laxative and anti-inflammatory. The seeds and leaves are rubefacient and stimulant. The plant is also used to treat greasy scalps and to prevent hair loss. Aphrodisiac Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav.: representative flowers. properties of the plant have been reported since Roman times. Nowadays it is highly valued for its high nutrition values and the health benefits its regular consumption confers, i.e. chemopreventive and detoxifying, neuroprotective, immune boosting. • Phytochemical composition: contains pro vitamin A, vitamin C, folate, calcium and fibre. Also provides carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene), flavonoids and glucosinolates (glucoerucin). It is also a good source of protein, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B6, pantothenic acid, zinc, copper, folate and magnesium. Hippophae rhamnoides L. Angew. Bot. 57 : 77-83. • Family: Elaeagnaceae. • Synonyms: Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson, Hippophae angustifolia Lodd., Hippophae littoralis Salisb., Hippophae rhamnoideum Saint-Lager, Hippophae sibirica Lodd., Hippophae stourdziana Szabό, Osyris rhamnoides Scop., Rhamnoides hippophae Moench. • Traditional English: Common names for Hippophae rhamnoides are Sea Buckthorn, Sandthorn, Sallowthorn, or Seaberry. The Latin rhamnoides means “resembling buckthorn”. As the buckthorns are in a different family, and the common name sea buckthorn can refer to more than one species, it is preferable to refer to this plant by its unique Latin name. • Systematic description: is an arborescent armed, deciduous shrub or tree sometimes reaching up to 18 m. Crown irregular in shape with spiny, grey branches. Leaves linear-lanceolate, alternate, 2-6 cm long, covered on both sides with silvery-white scales, undersides with brown dots. Flowers inconspicuous, yellow,unisexual appearing before leaves. Fruit a 1-seeded drupe, reddish orange, varying in length from 5-12 mm. • Geographical distribution: Hippophae rhamnoides is a native plant throughout Europe, from Norway south and east to Spain and Asia to Japan and the Himalayas. • Medicinal uses: The Sea Buckthorn berry is featured in the classical medical texts and herbals of Dioscorides and Theophrastus. Its traditional medicinal use centers on disorders of the skin and digestive tract; it’s able to speed the healing and regeneration of the skin and digestive mucosa in inflammatory and ulcerative conditions. It is highly valued as a superfood, and is consumed in many ways, due to its alleged antiplatelet, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic and anti-atherogenic, hypotensive, wound-healing properties. Hippophae rhamnoides L.: Fruits and leaves. • Phytochemical composition: The bioactive components of fruits vary with maturity, fruit size, species, geographic locations, climate and methods of extraction. The berries are a rich source of valuable compounds such as multiple vitamins, carotenoids, flavonoids, organic acids, amino acids, micro and macronutrients. In addition antioxidants, the berries are also rich in fatty acids and phytosterols. The leaves contain nutrients and bioactive substances, which mainly include flavonoids, carotenoids, free and esterified sterols, triterpenols, and isoprenols. The leaves are an equally rich source of important antioxidants including β-carotene, vitamin E, catechins, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, folic acid and significant values of calcium, magnesium and potassium. The polyphenolic compounds in the leaves are represented by flavonols, leucoanthocyanidins, epicatechin, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin and gallic acid. 109 Jasminum grandiflorum L. Sp. Pl. ed. 2, 9 (1762) • Family: Oleaceae. • Synonyms: Jasminum officinale subsp. grandiflorum (L.) E. Laguna, Jasminum officinale var. grandiflorum (L.) L.H. Bailey, Jasminum officinale f. grandiflorum (Linnaeus) Kobuski., Jasminum aureum D. Don. • Traditional English: Spanish jasmine, Royal jasmine, Catalonian jasmine, Jasmin, Jessamine and Common jasmine. • Systematic description: It is a climbing shrub, the leaves are opposite, with 3 to 7 lance-shaped, Entire ovate to somewhat elliptic in shape with acuminate mucronate apex, petiole almost lacking, imparipinnately compound, with three paired foliates ending with a single leaf at the tip. The leaflets are elongate-lanceolate, acute, 7 to 11 terminal leaflet somewhat large than laterals, narrowing at the base, ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, laterals ovate, terminal one larger than laterals and often partially united with surfaces with a ciliate margin. Flowers are terminal and axillary cymes, calyx lobes long and linear, more than half as long as the corolla tubes. The fruit is a black berry, elliptic, globose berries when ripe. • Geographical distribution: Native to South Asia. It is widely cultivated in Africa (N. Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco), Asia- Tropical (India), Europe ( S. Europe: Italy, France). • Medicinal uses: The whole plant is used as bitter, 110 astringent, acrid, thermogenic, aphrodisiac, antiseptic, anodyne, depurative, emmenagogue, emollient, diuretic, deobstruant, dentrifrice, suppurative and tonic. Roots are useful in cephalalgia, vitiated condition of vata, paralysis, facial paralysis, mental debility, chronic constipation, flatulence, strangury, sterility, dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, ringworm, leprosy, skin diseases and giddiness. Leaves are useful in odontalgia, fixing loose teeth, ulcerative stomatitis, leprosy, skin diseases, ottorhoea, otalgia, strangury, dysmenorrhoea, ulcers, wound Jasminum grandiflorum L.: Habit. and corns, aphthae, stomatitis, toothache, ulcer in the mout. A decoction of the leaf was also used as a gargle. The oil cooked with juice of jati leaves was prescribed in purulent discharge from the ear. Fresh juice of the leaves is a valuable application for sort corns between the toes, for ulceration in the mouth, throat and gums, the leaves fried in ghee are recommended to be applied. Flowers are useful in stomatopathy, cephalopathy, odontopathy, ophthalmopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, pruritis, strangury, dysmenorrhoea, ulcers, as refrigerant, ophthalmic and vitiated conditions of pitta. Applied as a plaster to the loins, genitals and pubes as an aphrodisiac. • Phytochemical composition: There are well over 100 constituents found in jasmine oil. Other non-volatile constituents are flavonoids, triterpenes (ursolic acid), phenylpropanoids, fatty acids and their esters, secoiridoid glucosides. Lycium barbarum L. Sp. Pl.: 192. 1753 • Family: Solanaceae. • Synonyms: Lycium halimifolium Mill., Lycium trewianum Roem. & Schult., Lycium vulgare Dunal, Teremis elliptica Raf., L. chinense., L. europaeum non L., L. lanceolatum, L. megistocarpum, L. ovatum.. • Traditional English: Boxthorn. It is also known as Chinese wolfberry, Chinese boxthorn, Himalayan goji, Tibetan goji, Mede berry, Barbary matrimony vine, Duke of Argyll’s tea tree, Duke of Argyll’s tea plant, Red medlar, or Matrimony vine, and the popularly used name Goji or goji berry. Its common name Goji comes from the Chinese world “Gouqizi”. “Zi” means “berry” or “seed” in Mandarin Chinese. • Systematic description: Plant up to 2,5 m; stems arcuate; spines slender, few. Leaves 20-100 x 6-30 mm, very narrowly elliptical to narrowly lanceolate, usually widest at the middle. Calyx c. 4 mm, 2-lipped. Corolla c. 9 mm, infundibuliform, the tube narrowly cylindrical at base for 2,5-3 mm, purple, becoming brownish; lobes c. 4 mm. Stamens long-exserted; filaments with dense tuft of hairs at base. Fruit red. 2n = 24. • Geographical distribution: Cultivated for hedges and naturalized in a large part of Europe. [Au Be Br Bu Co Cr Cz Da Ga Ge Hb He Ho Hs Hu It Ju Lu No Po Rm Rs (C, W, K, E) Su Tu.] (China.) • Medicinal uses: Wolfberries according to traditional Chinese medicine, enhance immune system function, improve eyesight, protect the liver, boost sperm production and improve circulation, among other effects. They act on the liver, lungs, and kidneys. Wolfberry leaves may be used to make tea and Lycium root bark is used for treatment of inflammatory and some types of skin diseases. Several published studies, have reported its possible medicinal benefits, especially due to its antioxidant properties, including potential benefits against cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases, vision-related diseases, having neuroprotective properties or as an Lycium barbarum L.: Fruits. anticancer and immunomodulatory agent. Additionally, a decoction made from the fruits is used to lower blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels. The fruit is taken internally in the treatment of diabetes, vertigo, lumbago, impotence and menopausal complaints. The root bark controls coughs and lowers fevers, blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels. It is taken internally in the treatment of chronic fevers, internal haemorrhages, nosebleeds, tuberculosis, coughs, asthma etc. It is applied externally to treat genital itching. • Phytochemical composition: Wolfberries contain many nutrients and phytochemicals including 11 essential and 22 trace dietary minerals, 18 amino acids, 6 essential vitamins, 8 polysaccharides and 6 monosaccharides, 5 unsaturated fatty acids, beta-sitosterol and other phytosterols, 5 carotenoids, numerous phenolic pigments (phenols) associated with antioxidant properties. 111 Mentha x piperita L. Sp. Pl. 576 (1753) • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Μentha dumetorum Schult., Mentha crispa L., Mentha aquatica L. var. crispa (L.) Benth. • Traditional English: Peppermint. • Systematic description: It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to 30-90 cm tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare fibrous roots. The leaves are from 4-9 cm long and 1,5-4 cm broad, dark green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, 6-8 mm long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5 mm diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. • Geographical distribution: Native in Europe, it is widely cultivated. 112 • Medicinal uses: Peppermint is commonly used to soothe or treat symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, indigestion, irritable bowel, and bloating. One animal study has suggested that peppermint may have radioprotective effects in patients undergoing cancer treatment. The aroma of peppermint has been found to enhance memory and alertness, although other research contests this. According to the German Commission E monographs, peppermint oil (as well as peppermint leaf) has been used internally as an antispasmodic and to treat irritable bowel syndrome, catarrh of the respiratory tract, and inflammation of the oral mucosa. Externally, peppermint oil has been used for myalgia and neuralgia. Peppermint oil may also act as a carminative, cholagogue, antibacterial, and secretolytic, and it has a cooling action. • Phytochemical composition: Peppermint has a high menthol content. The oil also contains menthone and menthyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate. Mentha x piperita L.: Stem with flowering inflorescences. Dried peppermint typically has 0.3-0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (7-48%), menthone (20-46%), menthyl acetate (3-10%), menthofuran (1-17%) and 1,8-cineol (3-6%). Peppermint oil also contains small amounts of many additional compounds including limonene, pulegone, caryophyllene and pinene. Ocimum basilicum L. Sp. Pl.: 597. 1753 • Family: Lamiaceae. • Synonyms: Ocimum album L., Ocimum anisatum Benth., Ocimum barrelieri Roth, Ocimum bullatum Lam., Ocimum caryophyllatum Roxb., Ocimum chevalieri Briq., Ocimum ciliare B. Heyne ex Hook. f., Ocimum ciliatum Hornem., Ocimum citrodorum Blanco, Ocimum cochleatum Desf., Ocimum dentatum Moench, Ocimum hispidum Lam., etc. • Traditional English: Basil, Thai Basil, Garden Basil, Holy Basil or Sweet Basil, sometimes known as Saint Joseph’s Wort in some English-speaking countries. The word Basil comes from the Greek “basileus”, meaning ”king“, as it has come to be associated with the Feast of the Cross commemorating the finding of the True Cross by St Helena mother of the emperor St. Constantine. The Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in “some royal unguent, bath, or medicine”. • Systematic description: Aromatic, annual herb, 0,3-0,5 metres tall, but some cultivars can reach up to 1 m. The basil plant grows from a thick taproot and has silky green opposite (paired) oval leaves which grow to be 3-11 cm (1,2-4,3 in) long and 1-6 cm (0,4-2,4 in), branching out from the central stem. Small white flowers clustered on a single spike at the top of the plant. • Geographical distribution: Basil is a native to areas in Asia and Africa and grows wild as a perennial on some pacific islands. Basil was brought from India to Europe through the Middle East in 16th century and subsequently to America in the 17th century. • Medicinal uses: The plant is generally used in treatments of problems concerning digestion and nervous system. Leaves are taken in cases of fevers, abdominal cramps, gastro-enteritis, constipation, nausea and poor digestion. Tea prepared from leaves is considered to obviate mild nervous tension, headaches, nausea and in case of sore throat. Decoction of the leaves acts as a helpful Ocimum basilicum L.: Habit. remedy in treatment of respiratory disorders. Jundice of basil leaves promotes expulsion of kidney stones. Chewing on basil leaves on a daily basis can act as a significant protection against stress, ulcer and mouth infections. Plant is also useful in reduction of blood cholesterol, it is used before and after childbirth to promote blood circulation, to treat snakebites and insect bites, worms and warts. Basil seeds are used as laxative due to the mucilage they contain. • Phytochemical composition: It is rich in essential oil. It contains linalool, methylchavicol, methylcinnamate, citral, eugenol, geraniol, etc. Estragole, a carcinogen, is present in the essential oil at levels between 8-16%. Essential oil is also found in sweet basil, along with rosmarinic acid, chicoric acid and caftaric acid, and flavonoids. 113 Pelargonium graveolens (Thunb.) L’Hér., in Aiton, Hort. Kew. 2: 423. 1789 • Family: Geraniaceae. • Synonyms: Geraniospermum terebinthenaceum (Cav.) Kuntze, Geranium graveolens (L’Hérit.) Thunb., Geranium radula Roth, Geranium terebenthinaceum Cav., Pelargonium asperum Ehrh. ex Willd. • Traditional English: Rose-scented pelargonium, Rosescent geranium, Bourbon geranium, Rose geranium, Old fashion rose geranium. Often called a geranium, as it falls within the plant family Geraniaceae, and was previously categorized under the same genus. The genus Pelargonium gets is name from the resemblance of the shape of the fruit to the beak of a stork, pelargos in Greek. The species name graveolens refers to the strong fragrance of the leaves, graveolens meaning strong-smelling in Latin. 114 • Systematic description: Suffrutex up to 1,3 m tall, strongly aromatic; internodes 1-8 cm long; vegetative parts, peduncles and pedicels glandular and pubescent, tomentose when young, hairs patent or ± oppressed on the leaves, glands short-stalked. Leaf-lamina 2-7 x 2,5-8 cm, broadly ovate to depressed-ovate, pinnatipartite or sometimes almost palmatipartite, cordate at the base. Stipules deltate to broadly ovate, acute, often bifid, membranous. Inflorescence a pseudumbel of (1) 2-5 (7) flowers. Sepals 7,5-11 x 2-5 mm, narrowly lanceolate to narrowly ovate or lorate to narrowly oblong, acute, patent-pubescent and glandular. Petals pink with darker veins. Stamens with fertile filaments 7, 10-16 mm long; Fruit 1,8-2,4 cm long. Seeds 3,2-3,6 x 1,4-1,8 mm, obovate, pale brown, minutely reticulate. • Geographical distribution: It is native to South Africa, it was introduced to Europe during the 17th century. Since then, it has been for commercial purposes. • Μedicinal uses: Essential oil of this plant helps clear spots and blemishes on the skin. It fades and lightens pox marks, scars, stretch marks and acne marks, it improves blood circulation under the skin, making it healthier and vibrant. It is a positive effect on the respiratory system, Pelargonium graveolens (Thunb.) L’Hér.: Habit. digestive system, circulatory system, endocrine functions and the nervous system. It is an effective astringent, protects open wounds and cuts from infection and also enables speedy healing, it contracts the blood vessels and speeds up clotting, it controls excessive bleeding, and it is beneficial in the case of a strong menstrual flow. It works also as a diuretic. It reduces pain by acting on the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system and helps alleviate arthritis. It promotes sleep and helps alleviate mood disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders. • Chemical composition: Over 120 different chemical constituents have been isolated in Pelargonium oil. The composition varies by growing conditions, and may include citronellol, geraniol, linalool, menthone, isomenthone, limonene, pinene and methyl eugenol. Pimpinella anisum L. Sp. Pl.: 264. 1753 • Family: Apiaceae. • Synonyms: Tragium anisum (L.) Link, Sison anisum (L.) Spreng., Seseli gilliesii Hook. & Arn., Selinum anisum (L.) E.H.L. Krause, Pimpinele anisa St.-Lag., Carum anisum (L.) Baill., Apium anisum (L.) Crantz, Anisum vulgare A. Gaertn., Anisum officinarum Moench, Anisum officinale DC., Anisum odoratum Raf. • Traditional English: Anise, Anis, Aniseed, Anason, Anasur, Anisu, Sweet cumin. The Medieval name “Pimpinella” is derived from the Latin name “dipinella,” meaning twice-pinnate or bi-pinnate in allusion to the form of the leaves. • Systematic description: Finely pubescent, strongly aromatic annual 10-50 cm. Stem terete, striate, branched above. Lowest leaves reniform, incise-dentate or shallowly lobed; next leaves pinnate with 3-5, ovate or obovate, dentate segments; upper cauline leaves 2- to 3-pinnate,with linear-lanceolate lobes and narrow, sheathing petioles. Rays 7-15, sparsely puberulent. Bracts absent or 1; bracteoles usually few, filiform. Petals white. Fruit 3-5 mm, ovoid to oblong, shortly appressed-setose. • Geographical distribution: With Asiatic origin, it is widely cultivated for its aromatic fruits and often naturalized [Au Bu Cr Cz Ga Ge Gr Hs Hu It Ju Lu No Po Rm Rs (C, W, E).] • Μedicinal uses: The medicinal use of aniseed is largely due to antispasmodic, secretolytic, secretomotor and antibacterial effects of its essential oil. Crushed fruits are traditionally used as infusions. It is considered to be an excellent tonic, helpful in solving various digestive problems, like bloating, nausea and indigestion. It is used in treating respiratory conditions: asthma, whooping cough, pectoral affections. Externally, it is used as a chest rub in treatments of bronchial disorders. It is also reported to be diuretic and digestive, and as a folk remedy to insomnia and constipation as well as to neurologic disorders. In traditional medicine, the drug is also reputed Pimpinella anisum L.: Plants in cultivation. able to alleviate pain associated with the female cycle and to be galactagogue and aphrodisiac. Based on the traditional use, European Medicines Agency approved the anise seeds and essential oil as a traditional herbal medicinal product for symptomatic treatment of mild, spasmodic gastro-intestinal complaints including bloating and flatulence, and as an expectorant in cough associated with cold. • Phytochemical composition: The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of crushed fruits and contains mainly trans-anethole. Anise oil contains sesquiterpene and monoterpene hydrocarbons with a variety of other compounds including linalool and beta-farnesene. Other constituents include flavonol glycosides, phenolic rivatives, furocoumarins, hydroxycoumarins, fixed oil and lipids. 115 Punica granatum L. Sp. Pl.: 472.1753 • Family: Lythraceae. • Synonyms: Punica malus L., Punica florida Salisb., Punica grandiflora hort. ex Steud., Punica nana L., Punica spinosa Lam. • Traditional English: Pomegranate, Granada, Grenade, Pomegranate, Anar, Granaatappel, Pomo Granato, Romeira, Melo Grano. The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latin pōmum “apple” and grānātum “seeded”, which means “apple of many seeds”. • Systematic description: The pomegranate is a shrub, usually with multiple stems, that commonly grows 1,84,6 m tall. The slender branches start out upright then droop gracefully. Unpruned shrubs have a decidedly weeping or fountain shaped habit. The deciduous leaves are shiny and about 7,6 cm long. Pomegranates have beautiful orange-red trumpet shaped flowers with ruffled petals. The flowers are about 5 cm long, often double, and are produced over a long period in summer. The fruit is globose, 5-7,6 cm in diameter, and shiny reddish or yellowish green when mature. It has a persistent calyx and looks like a little crown. The fruit is berry. • Geographical distribution: Native to Asia, from the Middle East to the Himalayas. It is cultivated in much of the Mediterranean region and tropical America. It has escaped cultivation and become established in parts of southern Europe and the American South and Southwest. • Μedicinal uses: All parts of the plant contain unusual 116 alkaloids, known as ‘pelletierines’, which paralyse tapeworms so that they are easily expelled from the body by using a laxative. In folk medicine, the fruit’s astringent properties have been used to treat various ailments (cuts, sore throats, vaginal discharge, dysentery, and gum disease). Pomegranate bark, leaves, immature fruit and fruit rind extracts is given to combat diarrhea, dysentery and hemorrhages, whilst powdered flower buds acts as a remedy for nose bleeding. The seeds are demulcent and stomachic. The juice of pomegranate contains polyphe- Punica granatum L.: Mature fruits. nolic antioxidants which offer protection from diabetes, heart diseases, osteoarthritis and several kinds of cancer. It has a great impact on health, particularly on the health of the heart, by keeping the arteries flexible and decreasing the inflammation in the lining of the blood vessels. It is known to reduce atherosclerosis, which is one of the leading causes of heart disease. It lowers the amount bad cholesterol that is retained in the body and increases the amount of good cholesterol. Pomegranates are also known to reduce high blood pressure. • Phytochemical composition: It is a great source of ellagic acid, and antioxidant and punicic acid, an omega 5 polyunsaturated fatty acid which is highly beneficial for cell regeneration and proliferation. The juice of fruit is an exceptional source of vitamin A, C and E and minerals such as calcium, phosphorous, potassium, iron, folic acid, niacin, thiamin, folates and riboflavin. The root bark, leaves and fruit rind have tannin content. Stevia rebaudiana (Bert.) Bertoni • Family: Asteraceae. • Synonyms: Eupatorium rebaudianum Bertoni. • Traditional English: Sweetleaf (USA), Sweet honey leaf (Aust.), Sweet leaf, Sugarleaf, Sweet herb of Paraguay, Honey leaf, Candy leaf or simply Stevia, due to its sweet leaves. Stevia genus was discovered by the Spanish botanist and physicist Pedro Jaime Esteve (from whom the name Stevia). The species name, Rebaudiana, was attributed in honour of the chemist Rebaudi, who first studied plant sweetening substance. • Systematic description: It is a perennial semi-shrub up to 30 cm in height. Leaves are sessile, 3-4 cm long, elongate-lanceolate or spatulate shape with blunttipped lamina, serrate margin from the middle to the tip and entire below. The upper surface of the leaf is slightly glandular pubescent. The stem is weak-pubescent at bottom and woody. The rhizome has slightly branching roots. Flowers are composite surrounded by an involucre of epicalyx. Capitula are in loose, irregular, sympodial cymes. The flowers are light purple, pentamerous. Fruit is a five-ribbed spindle-shaped achene. • Geographical distribution: Stevia is a genus native to subtropical and tropical regions from western North America to South America - Brazil, Paraguay. • Medicinal uses: It is probably the presence of the steviosides themselves that has produced dozens of empirical and semi-controlled reports of hypoglycemic action. According to studies, stevia is helpful for hypoglycemia and diabetes because it nourishes the pancreas and thereby helps to restore normal pancreatic function. The ability of stevia to inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria and other infectious organisms is important in at least two respects. First, it may help explain why users of stevia-enhanced products report a lower incidence of colds and flus, and second, it has fostered the invention of a number of mouthwash and tooth paste products. Stevia has even been shown to lower the incidence of dental Stevia rebaudiana (Bert.) Bertoni: Plantation. caries. Stevia tea, made from either hot or cold water, is used as a low calorie, sweet-tasting tea, as an appetite stimulant, as a digestive aid and as an aid to weight management. One of the properties of a liquid extract of stevia that has not yet been investigated experimentally is its soothing action on skin. In folk medicine, it is placed directly in cuts and wounds, more rapid healing, without scarring, is observed. • Phytochemical composition: Over 100 phytochemicals have been discovered in stevia. S. rebaudiana contains a complex mixture of labdane diterpenes, triterpenes, stigmasterol, tannins, volatile oils, and diterpenenic glycosides.It is rich in terpenes and flavonoids. Stevioside, comprising 6-18% of the stevia leaf, is also the most prevalent glycoside in the leaf. Other sweet constituents include steviolbioside, rebausiosides A-E, and dulcoside A. 117 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Sp. Pl.: 777. 1753 • Family: Fabaceae. • Synonyms: Buceras foenum-graecum (L.) All., Foenumgraecum officinale Moench, Foenum-graecum sativum Medik., Telis foenum-graeca (L.) Kuntze, Trigonella foenum-graecum subsp. culta (Alef.) Gams, Trigonella jemenensis (Serp.) Sinskaya, Trigonella graeca St.-Lag., Trogonella Tibetan (Alef.) Vassilcz. • Traditional English: Bird’s-Foot, Bockshornklee, Classical Fenugreek, Common Fenugreek, Cultivated Fenugreek, Fenugreek, Cultivated Trigonella, Greek Clover, Greek Hay, Greek Hayseed, Methi seed Plant, Sicklefruit fenugreek, Trigonella. • Systematic description: Stems 10-50 cm, sparsely pubescent. Leaflets 20-50 x 10-15 mm, obovate to oblong-oblanceolate, denticulate. Flowers solitary or paired, subsessile. Calyx 6-8 mm, the teeth about as long as tube; Corolla 12-18 mm, yellowish-white tinged with violet at the base. Legume (excluding beak) 60-110 x 4-6 mm, erect or patent, linear, somewhat curved, glabrous or glabrescent, with longitudinal veins; beak (10-)20-30 mm. Seeds c. 5 x 3 mm, quadrangular, somewhat compressed, yellow or pale brown, finely tuberculate. 2n = 16. • Geographical distribution: It is a native of south Eastern Europe and west Asia. It is cultivated for fodder, mainly in C. & S. Europe, and widely naturalized. [Al Au Be Bu Cr Cz Ga Ge Gr He Hs Hu It Ju Lu Rm Rs Si Tu.] (? S.W. Asia). 118 • Medicinal uses: In ancient Rome, fenugreek was pur- portedly used to aid labour and delivery. Traditionally, it was used for the treatment of indigestion and baldness. It is sometimes used as a poultice. That means it is wrapped in cloth, warmed and applied directly to the skin to treat local pain and swelling (inflammation), muscle pain, pain and swelling of lymph nodes (lymphadenitis), pain in the toes (gout), wounds, leg ulcers, and eczema. The possible hypoglycaemic and antihyperlipidemic properties of oral fenugreek seed powder have Trigonella foenum-graecum L.: Plant with flowers. been suggested by the results of preliminary animal and human trials. European Medicines Agency approved the use of its seeds as a traditional herbal medicinal product used for temporary loss of appetite and the symptomatic treatment of minor inflammations of the skin. • Phytochemical composition: Fenugreek seed is rich in mucilage polysaccharides, contains a small amount of essential oil, a variety of secondary metabolites, including protoalkaloids, trigonelline, choline; saponins, derived from diosgenin, yamogenin, tigogenin and other compounds; sterols including β-sitosterol; and flavonoids, among which are orientin, isoorientin and isovitexin. Vaccinium corymbosum L. Sp. Pl.: 350. 1753 • Family: Ericaceae. Subfamily: Vaccinioideae. • Synonyms: Cyanococcus corymbosus (L.) Rydb., Vaccinium atlanticum E.P. Bicknell, V. constablaei A. Gray. • Traditional English: Blueberry, Northern highbush blueberry, Blue huckleberry, Tall huckleberry, Swamp huckleberry, High blueberry, and Swamp blueberry, or Bluecrop. • Systematic description: Deciduous dwarf shrub. Leaves dark green, up to 7,0 x 2,5 cm, slightly leathery, sometimes with sharply toothed margins. In autumn, the leaves turn to a brilliant red, orange, yellow, and/ or purple. Flowers lantern-like (urceolate) with white or pink petals. Sepals largely, often almost completely connate. Corolla cylindrical. Stamens 8 or 10; anthers with or without appendages, each lobe prolonged apically into a tube with a pore at the apex. Ovary inferior; fruits blue berries 7-10 mm. • Geographical distribution: It is native to eastern USA and Canada, where it is found at up to 1,600 m above sea level. It is cultivated in many countries, including the USA, Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Mexico, Argentina, Uruguay and Chile. • Medicinal uses: A decoction of leaves or bark of root may be used on ulcers, for sore throat and swelling (inflammation) of the mouth or the skin lining the throat. The dried fruit and leaves are used for diarrhea. The fruit is said to be helpful in scurvy and urinary complaints. The roots, when bruised and steeped in gin, are said to have diuretic properties. It has been used for atherosclerosis, cataracts, degenerative retinal conditions, eyestrain, nearsightedness, night blindness, poor eyesight, retinitis pigmentosa, diabetes mellitus, diabetic retinopathy, dropsy, dysentery, mild enteritis, sinusitis and varicose veins. It is among the fruits with the highest antioxidant activity. Researchers have shown that a serving of fresh Blueberries provides more antioxidant activity than many other fresh fruits and vegetables. Its chemical com- Vaccinium corymbosum L.: Fruiting shrubs. pounds, including anthocyanins and phenolics, help to combat cell damage caused by harmful free radicals and cleanse the blood of toxinsNumerous reports state that blueberries are one of the ‘superfoods’ that help improve brain function and may reduce the effects of age-related conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease or dementia. • Phytochemical composition: Blueberry fruits and leaves are a good source of chlorogenic acid, flavonoids (anthocyanins, quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, catechin, epicatechin), procyanidins, resveratrol, pterostilbene, and vitamin C, which contribute to antioxidant activity. 119
