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Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins A. Introduction to Text 1. This text was written to emphasize the cultural approach in understanding the way people grow and change across the lifespan. That is in essence human development. 2. Culture is the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology passed along through language. Upp 3. A biological perspective is also offered in this text, especially in terms of how biology interacts with cultural and social influences. 4. In the past, culture was largely ignored by social scientists in favor of universal principles of development. a. Research with White, middle-class Americans was the basis of much developmental research—to the exclusion of other cultures. b. More researchers are now embracing the influence of culture on development. 5. By learning to think critically about culture, and to appreciate diversity, you will be better prepared to think culturally and to act as a citizen of the global village. a. Globalization refers to the increasing connections between different parts of the world in trade, travel, migration, and communication. B. Humanity Today: A Demographic Profile 1. Population Change a. Historically, the human population hovered around 10 million. However, notable growth began to occur about 10,000 years ago. b. Medical advances facilitated a population boom, and in 2011, the Earth’s population was about 7 billion. c. Increases, of up to 9 billion, are expected to continue until 2050. i. The increase can be attributed to the current Total Fertility Rate, or number of live births per woman, which is 2.8 live births per woman. This is higher than the replacement rate of just 2.1. 2. Variations across Countries a. Developed countries are the most affluent countries in the world as classified by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). i. These countries likely include the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, and most European countries. ii. They represent about 18 percent of the world’s population. b. In contrast, developing countries have less wealth, but an increasing economic presence in the global economy. i. They represent about 82 percent of the world’s population. c. Most developed countries, except the United States, are expected to lose population. i. The U.S. population is expected to have slight gains because the fertility rate is close to the replacement rate and they have generous immigration laws compared to other developed countries. ii. Japan’s population expected to decline the most due to low fertility and lack of immigration. d. There is a large income difference between developing and developed countries. 7 i. In developing countries, most families live on less than $6,000 per year, with Africa remaining the poorest region in the world. ii. Ninety percent of individuals in developed countries are in the top twenty percent of the global income distribution. e. There is also an educational divide between developing and developed countries. i. Nearly 100 percent of children in developed countries are afforded a primary and secondary education, and about half go on to college. ii. In developing countries, 80 percent of children attend primary school, but only half advance to secondary school; college attendance is for the rich. f. Cultural differences across developed and developing countries should be noted. i. Developed countries tend to foster individualistic values such as independence and self-expression, while developing countries prize collectivistic values such as obedience and group harmony. g. The rural and urban areas within developing countries resemble the differences between developing and developed countries. i. Individuals in rural areas tend to have more traditional cultures and follow historic traditions. Compared with city dwellers, people in rural areas have lower incomes, fewer educational opportunities, and inadequate medical care. 3. Variations within Countries a. Human development varies not only between developing and developed countries, but within each as well. i. Within each country, the majority culture sets most of the norms and standards and holds most of the positions of power. ii. There are additional influences from the minority culture. b. The context in which human development occurs varies based on the environmental setting and circumstances that surround the individual. c. Additional variations include socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity. i. SES refers to social class and is based on educational level, income, and occupational status. A high SES is associated with positive developmental outcomes and a low SES is associated with negative outcomes. ii. Gender roles are the expectations for males and females and vary within and between countries. f. In developed countries, gender roles have become more integrated over time with less differentiation. This is not true in some other cultures. iii. Ethnicity, which includes cultural origin and traditions, race, religion, and language, also influences human development. f. Ethnic minorities tend to be more collectivistic even within an individualistic majority culture. C. The Origins of Human Diversity Understanding human development through the lens of evolutionary theory provides a perspective that may be challenging but which helps us to understand the human species and culture. 1. Human Origins a. According to evolutionary theory, species change through the process of natural selection. i. Young are born with variations, and those with the best adaptations are the most likely to survive. a. Natural selection results in species change a little at a time over many generations. This can result in the development of new species. b. Human Evolution i. Human evolution began about 6–8 million years ago when a common primate ancestor split into different paths. ii. The human evolutionary line is called the hominid line. a. Early hominids developed the ability to walk on two legs, called bipedal locomotion, which allowed them to use their arms and hands for tasks other than moving about. iii. The hominid line further split, resulting in the Homo species, which is most closely related to modern humans. iv. The early Homos had an increased brain size and wider female pelvis. a. Infant dependency lasted longer, requiring mothers to stay close to home and become gatherers. b. Males/fathers were able to travel greater distances to hunt or scavenge. v. With the development of the ability to make tools and control fire, the Homo species began cutting and cooking meat. This led to smaller teeth and jaws because the food was easier to eat. vi. Our species, Homo sapiens, evolved about 200,000 years ago from the Homo species. a. They were thinner and had lighter bones. b. They had smaller teeth and jaws. c. Their brain was 30 percent larger than the Homo species. 2. The Origin of Cultures and Civilizations a. During the Upper Paleolithic period (40,000–10,000 years ago), evidence of culture first appeared. i. Human evolution began about 6–8 million years ago when a common primate ancestor split into one of three paths: human, chimpanzee, or gorilla (See Figure 1.2). ii. Burial of the dead began. iii. Cultural differences appeared between groups of people. iv. Trade, industry, and migration across large bodies of water began after the invention of the boat. b. The Neolithic period followed: about 10,000–5,000 years ago. i. The hallmarks of the period included farming and animal domestication, a warmer climate, new tools, and permanent dwellings. c. Civilization as we know it began around 5,000 years ago. i. Civilization is characterized by the development of cities, the ability to write, divisions of labor, SES, and political systems called states. ii. Civilizations and states arose due to agricultural efficiency, which led to the opportunity to create and work in different fields. As people spread, the state tended to infrastructure and trade development. 3. Human Evolution and Human Development Today a. Our human development is based in part on our evolutionary history. i. Evolutionary psychology is a biologically based approach to the study of behavior that has adapted as a result of natural selection. b. Biologically, little evolutionary change has occurred since the origin of Homo sapiens—but much has changed in terms of culture. c. Our cultures shape our raw biological material, producing variations in development throughout the lifespan. d. Culture is what makes us unique from non-human animals, and it developed in part from our large brains and our ability to learn, create, and adapt. II. Section Two: Theories of Human Development A. Classic Theories 1. Historical Focus: Ancient Conceptions of Human Development a. Dharmashastras, the oldest known conception of a life course, was advanced about 3,000 years ago by the Hindus and is comprised of 4 stages, including Apprentice, Householder, Forest Dweller, and Renunciant. b. The second conception of life was drawn from Judaism, from the Talmud (about 1,500 years ago), and is comprised of 14 stages. 10 2. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory a. The basis of Freud’s psychosexual theory of human development was a sexual desire that shifted around the body during a person’s early development. b. There are several stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. c. Failure to successfully complete each stage results in a fixation that will impact later development. d. There are limitations of Freud’s psychosexual theory. i. No single motive can explain the complexity of human development. ii. The theory was not developed or tested with children: only a retrospective using troubled, adult women. e. It was the dominant theory until the latter half of the twentieth century; it is no longer considered accurate. 3. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory a. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was based on our need to become integrated into our social and cultural environment throughout the lifespan. b. Each of the eight stages of development is characterized by a distinctive developmental challenge or crisis that a person must successfully resolve. His theory extends across the lifespan. i. Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy) ii. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlerhood) iii. Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood) iv. Industry vs. Inferiority (middle to late childhood) v. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (adolescence) vi. Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood) vii. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) viii. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood) c. The psychosocial theory that we develop across the lifespan with cultural and social influences is widely accepted. d. Not all of the stages he outlined have been fully embraced. B. Behavioristic and Learning Theories 1. Pavlov and Skinner: Laws of Conditioning a. Behaviorism developed as a reaction to psychoanalytical theory as well as a need for a more scientific approach. b. Persons such as John Watson who used the behaviorist approach also are called learning theorists; they believe that all behavior is learned and shaped. c. Classical conditioning is the process of association between a neutral stimulus and one that previously existed (unconditioned stimulus). d. Ivan Pavlov’s work with dogs produced one of the best known examples; the dogs were conditioned to salivate to a bell. 11 e. B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning through the use of reinforcement. This process is used by parents and teachers who shape behaviors with grades, praise, and other reinforcements. 2. Social Learning Theory a. Social Learning theory studied how behaviors can change through observation or modeling. b. Albert Bandura studied aggression and other behaviors that were modeled and imitated. C. Constructivist Theories 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivist Theory a. Jean Piaget observed children’s cognitive development and concluded that children function differently. He developed a stage theory of cognitive development. b. Piaget suggested that children organize abilities into mental structures and developed the cognitive constructivist approach. c. There are four stages, according to Piaget (see Table 1.3). i. Sensorimotor stage (ages Birth to two years) ii. Preoperational stage (ages two years to seven years) iii. Concrete operations stage (ages seven to eleven years) iv. Formal operations stage (ages eleven to fifteen and up) d. The changes in stages are due to maturation, a biological unfolding of cognitive skills that occurs in conjunction with interaction with the world. e. Schemes are the cognitive structures for processing, organizing, and interpreting information. f. Assimilation occurs when new information is taken in to fit an existing scheme. g. Accommodation involves changing or adapting the new information to fit or developing a new scheme. h. Piaget’s theory helps explain how persons take in and utilize new information, and it continues to be very influential even though research has modified the original ideas. 2. Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory a. The Russian psychologist’s theory has gained popularity and is known as a social constructivist or sociocultural theory. He emphasized the ways in which learning is actively constructed through social interaction. b. The zone of proximal development is the difference between the skills that the child can accomplish alone and the ones that the child can accomplish with guidance from a teacher. c. Scaffolding is the degree of assistance provided to children in the zone of proximal development. 12 Copyright © 2013 by Pearson NJ 07458. All rights reserved.Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, D. Recent Theories 1. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory a. The ecological theory of development is a systems approach to development: not a stage theory. It focuses on five social systems that influence development. i. Microsystem (a more common term is context): immediate environmental settings and relationships ii. Mesosystem: the network of the microsystems iii. Exosystem: societal institutions with an indirect influenc e iv. Macrosystem: shared cultural beliefs and values that include the economy and government v. Chronosystem: individual and historical changes in developmental circumstances b. Ecological theory differs from stage theories because of its cultural emphasis and the recognition of historical contexts and of children as active participants in their development. 2. A Stage Model for This Book a. Combination of Erikson’s and Bronfenbrenner’s approaches i. A seven-stage approach to development from prenatal development through emerging adulthood that takes into account multiple contexts interacting in many different ways ii. The stages are divided by the traditional periods with the addition of emerging adulthood between adolescence and young adulthood. iii. Emerging adulthood is a life stage, primarily seen in developed countries, that is a transition from parental dependence to independence but lacks the hallmarks of adulthood. iv. Emerging adulthood usually occurs when tertiary education is pursued, thus delaying marriage and parenthood. v. Age ranges are more specific for the early stages, but less defined in the last two stages. vi. Although this text uses a stage approach, be aware that development is a continuous and gradual process. III. Section Three: How We Study Human Development A. The Scientific Study of Human Development 1. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method a. Identifying a question to be investigated b. Forming a hypothesis 13 i. A hypothesis is the researcher’s idea about the possible answer to his or her question. ii. The formation of the hypothesis is crucial to determining the research methods and design. c. Choosing a research method and design i. The research method is the way the hypothesis is investigated. ii. The research design is the data collection plan. d. Collecting data to test hypothesis i. Data are collected from a sample, a group of participants that should be representative of the population of interest. ii. Using a representative sample increases the generalizability of the findings so that conclusions may extend to the population. iii. The procedure details how the study is conducted and the data are collected. e. Drawing conclusions that lead to new questions and hypotheses i. Conclusions are based on results that have been statistically analyzed. ii. The researcher determines whether the data support or refute the hypothesis. iii. The research is usually disseminated by writing a manuscript that is submitted to a peer-reviewed journal so that the work can be assessed for accuracy and credibility. iv. Research may lead to the development or modification of theories. f. A theory is an original framework to explain a set of interconnected ideas that fosters new research. 2. Ethics in Human Development Research a. The requirements of the institutional review board usually include the following components: i. Protection from physical and psychological harm ii. Informed consent from adult participants and the parents of minor participants, as well as the child’s assent b. The consent form or cover letter provides basic information about the researcher and the study. i. This includes the purpose, the nature and extent of participation, risks, and benefits of the study. ii. Subjects must also be informed that participation is voluntary and withdrawal at any time is permissible. a. Confidentiality I. information not shared outside of researchers II. data reported in aggregate iii. Deception and debriefing 14 a. Deception is sometimes required to study phenomena that subjects might want to hide. b. If deception is used, the researchers must debrief that participant afterward. That is, they must tell the participant the true purpose of the study. B. Methods and Designs in Research 1. Research Methods a. Questionnaires (Surveys) i. Closed questions have specific responses; this makes it easy to collect and analyze the data. This is useful for large data sets. ii. Open-ended questions allow self-generated responses by the participant. iii. Limitations: Closed-ended questions that use an existing response set may miss the depth, complexity, and diversity of the participants. b. Interviews i. Interviews capture a subjects’ individuality and complexity by allowing them to describe their lives in their own words. ii. Interviews provide qualitative data that are not readily quantifiable. iii. Limitations: difficult and time consuming to code into useful categories c. Observations i. Involve making systematic observations and recording that information a. Locations: naturalistic and laboratory b. Advantage: better than self-report c. Limitation: possible change in participant behavior when he or she has knowledge of observation d. Ethnographic Research i. in-depth observational research over time that occurs when the researcher lives and interacts with the participants ii. Advantage: naturalistic setting that more accurately captures daily life iii. Limitation: time-consuming and expensive; researchers may develop observer bias due to personal relationships with participants e. Case Studies i. A case study is a detailed examination of the life of one person or a small number of persons. ii. Advantage: detailed account of the whole person iii. Limitation: limited generalizability f. Biological Methods i. Human development includes biological changes. 15 a. Includes hormonal functioning, brain functioning, and the genetic basis of development b. Often combined with other methodology to present a more complete picture ii. Advantage: allows for precise measurements; investigation of the relationship between biological and other types of development iii. Limitations: expensive; relationships are correlational, not causal g. Reliability and Validity i. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurements. That is, getting the same measurements time and again. ii. Validity refers to the truthfulness or accuracy of a method. A valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure. h. Experimental Research i. In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to an experimental group or a control group to measure the difference between the groups after the treatment or manipulation. a. The experimental group gets the treatment or manipulation. b. The control group gets no treatment or manipulation. c. Random assignment assumes equality between the groups prior to the treatment or manipulation. 1. An independent variable is the variable that differs from the control group. It is the variable that is being manipulated. 2. A dependent variable is the measurable outcome. ii. Advantage: allows control and gives the researcher the ability to make causal, rather than correlational, statements about the effectiveness of the experimental manipulation. iii. Disadvantage: limited generalizability due to a lack of realism a. Interventions programs intend to change the attitudes or behavior of participants and are often measured experimentally to determine their effectiveness. i. Natural Experiments i. A natural experiment (sometimes referred to as a quasiexperiment) can examine naturally occurring groups for differences while yielding the control that a lab and random assignment afford. 2. Research Design a. Cross-Sectional i. Most common type ii. Data are collected with a sample on a single occasion. iii. Advantage: quick and inexpensive iv. Limitation: only yields correlational relationships between variables without the ability to determine cause 16 b. Longitudinal Research i. Longitudinal Research is a type in which the same individuals are followed over time with repeated measures. ii. The same participants have data collected over time—at least twice, but often more frequently. iii. Longitudinal research usually lasts a year or less, but could last a lifetime. iv. Advantages: ability to examine development over time; allows greater insight into possible causation a. A cohort effect is a cultural change that occurs and impacts the development of a specific generation. v. Limitations: costly and time-consuming; requires more patience; attrition, or participants leaving the study, can be a problem.