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Chapter7:Max Weber Max Weber: Introduction Born April 21, 1864 In Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany (Suburbs of Berlin) Eldest of seven children in upper middle class family German Political Economist and Sociologist One of the founders of modern Sociology Began his interest in Social Sciences when he was 13 Brother Alfred became a Sociologist and Economist Helped found the German Democratic Party Max Weber: Education In 1882 Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student In 1884 transferred back home to study at the University of Berlin Studied one term at the University of Goettingen and had short periods of military training In 1886 passed the “Referendar” (similar to the bar association in British and American legal systems) but continued to study history In 1889 earned his law doctorate and two years later was qualified to hold a German professorship Max Weber: Post Education After 1889 took an interest in contemporary social policy Joined a professional association of German economists (called the “Verin”) who saw economics solved the many social problems of the age In 1890 the “Verin” established a research program to study influx of foreign farm workers to Eastern Germany as local laborers migrated to Germany’s rapidly industrializing cities. Weber was put in charge of this study and wrote a large part of the results. The final report was acclaimed as an excellent piece of empirical research and boosted Weber’s reputation as an expert in agrarian economics (microeconomics) Later Life 1893-Married Marianne Schnitger, who later became an author and published Weber’s works after his death 1894-Moved to the University of Freiburg, appointed professor of Economics 1896-Moved to the University of Heidelburg 1898- Quarreled with his father, who died two months later, which left Weber more prone to nervousness and insomnia. Reduced his teaching load and spent months in a sanitarium 1900-Moved to Italy for two years The Protestant Ethic Between 1898-1902 Weber didn’t publish a single paper 1903-Resigned from Heidelburg professorship and became an associate editor for Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare 1904-Published The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, his most famous and influential work. During WWI During World War I, Weber joined the worker and soldier council of Heidelburg (1918). Was also consultant to the German Armistice Commission at the Treaty of Versailles, and a member of the committee responsible for drafting the Weimar Constitution -He personally advocated for the inclusion of Article 48 in the Weimar Constitution, which Hitler later used as justification for his dictatorship After WWI He resumed teaching after WWI, first at Vienna and later at Munich In Munich he established a sociology institution in the University but didn’t personally participate in it. He was extremely left-wing during this time, prompting several right-wing protests from students. Max Weber died of pnuemonia in Munich on June 14, 1920 Max Weber: Works Intro Individualist More cultural in orientation than Marx and Durkheim Believed the work of social institutions was collective among individuals under influence Religious, Political, Economic, and Aesthetic all motivated action. Argued that social science should seek causal arguments that generalize past any particular case, even if it was not possible to build universal laws of human society. Stressed the proper object of analysis was social action. (action results from the head which has subjective motivations) Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to: discuss the key elements of Weber's methodology, including verstehen, his conception of causality, the role and construction of ideal types, and the role of values in sociological inquiry; discuss Weber's definition of sociology, as well its advantages and disadvantages; compare and contrast the four types of social action; compare and contrast the three types of legitimate domination or authority, as well as the forms of organization and administration that correspond to each; discuss the four ideal types of rationality and the process of rationalization in various spheres (e.g., the economy, religion, law, the polity, the arts, and the city); give a broad overview of the connection between religion and the rise of modern capitalism, including a discussion of why some religions erect barriers to the rise of modern capitalism. identify some of the shortcomings of Weber's sociological theory. Chapter Outline I. Methodology A Verstehen. B. Causality C. Ideal Types D. Values . 1. Values and Teaching 2. Values and Research II. Substantive Sociology A. What is Sociology? B. Social Action 1. Means-ends Rationality 2. Value Rationality 3. Affectual 4. Traditional C. Class, Status, and Party D. Structures of Authority 1. Legal Authority a. ideal-typical bureaucracy b. any alternatives? c. any hope? 2. Traditional Authority 3. Charismatic Authority a. charisma and revolution b. charismatic organization and the routinization of charisma 4. Types of Authority and the "Real World" E. Rationalization 1. Types of Rationality a. practical (实用型理性);b. theoretical (理论型理性);c. substantive (实质型 理性);d. formal (形式型理性) 2. An Overarching Theory? 3. Formal and Substantive Rationality 4. Rationalization in Various Social Settings a. economy ;b. religion ;c. law ;d. polity ;e. the city; f. art forms F. Religion and the Rise of Capitalism 1. Paths to Salvation a. otherworldly asceticism (出世) b. innerworldly asceticism (入世) 2. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism 3. Calvinism and the Spirit of Capitalism 4. Religion and Capitalism in China a. structural barriers b. Confucianism c. Taoism 5. Religion and Capitalism in India III. Criticisms A. Verstehen B. Lack of a Fully Theorized Macrosociology C. Lack of a Critical Theory D. Pessimism IV. Summary Chapter Summary 1.Max Weber's Methodology Max Weber (1864-1920) argued against abstract theory, and he favored an approach to sociological inquiry that generated its theory from rich systematic, empirical, historical research. This approach required, first of all, an examination of the relationships between, and the respective roles of, history and sociology in inquiry. Weber argued that sociology was to develop concepts for the analysis of concrete phenomena, which would allow sociologists to then make generalizations about historical phenomena. History, on the other hand, would use a lexicon of sociological concepts in order to perform causal analysis of particular historical events, structures, and processes. In scholarly practice, according to Weber, sociology and history are interdependent. Weber contended that understanding, or verstehen, was the proper way of studying social phenomena. Derived from the interpretive practice known as hermeneutics, the method of verstehen strives to understand the meanings that human beings attribute to their experiences, interactions, and actions. Weber construed verstehen as a methodical, systematic, and rigorous form of inquiry that could be employed in both macro- and micro-sociological analysis. Weber's formulation of causality stresses the great variety of factors that may precipitate the emergence of complex phenomena such as modern capitalism. Moreover, Weber argued that social scientists, unlike natural scientists, must take into account the meanings that actors attribute to their interactions when considering causality. Weber, furthermore, sought a middle ground between nomothetic (general laws) and idiographic (idiosyncratic actions and events) views in his notion of a probabilistic adequate causality. Weber's greatest contribution to the conceptual arsenal of sociology is known as the ideal type. The ideal type is basically a theoretical model constructed by means of a detailed empirical study of a phenomenon. An ideal type is an intellectual construct that a sociologist may use to study historical realities by means of their similarities to, and divergences from, the model. Note that ideal types are not utopias or images of what the world ought to look like. Weber urged sociologists to reflect on the role of values in both research and the classroom. When teaching, he argued, sociologists ought to teach students the facts, rather than indoctrinating them to a particular political or personal point of view. Weber did argue, however, that the values of one's society often help to decide what a scholar will study. He contended that, while values play this very important role in the research process, they must be kept out of the collection and interpretation of data 2.Max Weber's Substantive Sociology Max Weber's sociology is fundamentally a science that employs both interpretive understanding and causal explanations of social action and interaction. His typology of the four types of social action is central to comprehending his sociology. According to Weber, social action may be classified as meansends rational action, value-rational action, affectual action, or traditional action. Any student of Weber must keep in mind that these are ideal types. Weber developed a multidimensional theory of stratification that incorporated class, status, and party. Class is determined by one's economic or market situation (i.e., life chances), and it is not a community but rather a possible basis for communal action. Status is a matter of honor, prestige, and one's style of life. Parties, according to Weber, are organized structures that exist for the purposes of gaining domination in some sphere of social life. Class, status, and party may be related in many ways in a given empirical case, which provides the sociologist with a very sophisticated set of conceptual tools for the analysis of stratification and power. Weber also made a profound contribution to the study of obedience with his ideal types of legitimate domination or authority. Rational-legal authority rests on rules and law. Traditional authority rests on belief in established practices and traditions — i.e., authority is legitimate because it is exercised the way it has always been exercised. Charismatic authority rests on belief in the extraordinary powers or qualities of a leader. All of these forms of authority must take into account the point of view of those obeying commands. Moreover, each form of authority is associated with a variety of structural forms of organization and administration. Legal authority, for example, is often associated with bureaucracy, while traditional authority is associated with gerontocracy, patriarchalism, patrimonialism, and feudalism. Charismatic authority may be associated with a charismatic form of organization. The dilemma of charismatic authority, however, consists of the difficulty of maintaining charisma when the charismatic leader dies. In other words, charismatic organizations tend to routinize charisma, which invariably gives rise to either traditional or rational-legal authority. Weber also argued that rationalization is a long-term historical process that has transformed the modern world. His typology of forms of rationality is central to this argument. He argued that there are four types of rationality: practical, theoretical, formal, and substantive. He was most concerned with processes of formal and substantive rationalization, especially as propelled by capitalism and bureaucracy. Weber argued that rationalization has occurred in many spheres, including the economy, law, religion, politics, the city, and art. Weber's arguments regarding rationalization are exemplified in his studies of religion and capitalism. These sophisticated and voluminous studies inquire into the ways in which religious ideas, the spirit of capitalism, and capitalism as an economic system, are interrelated. In short, according to Weber, Calvinism as a rational, methodical system of religious beliefs and practices was an important factor in the emergence of modern capitalism in the Western world. The economic ethics of other religions, such as Hinduism and Confucianism, inhibited the emergence of modern capitalism in India and China. Once modern capitalism emerged in the Western world, however, it spread the effects of rationalization worldwide. While Weber's work has had a profound impact on sociology — as well as other disciplines — it is not without its critics. Some critics question the consistency and applicability of Weber's method of verstehen. Others are puzzled by Weber's methodological individualism as it is applied to macro-sociology. Some critics have rebuked Weber for failing to offer any alternatives to rationalization, capitalism, and bureaucracy. Finally, many critics decry Weber's unflagging pessimism about the future of rationalization and bureaucracy. Max Weber Objectivity in Social Science Max Weber: Objectivity in Social Science Only way to escape the subjectivity of researcher is the use of ideal types Ideal types must be explained in detail to understand how the historian would like the word to be interpreted. Confuses theory and history Capitalism and Democracy? Church and sect? If a historian does not pay attention to the use of ideal types without elaboration, his work may be vaguely felt. Max Weber: Objectivity in Social Science The danger of ideal types results from a cultural understanding Ideal types used in objective explanations of social action should be concerned with the ideas that subjectivity motivate action “Synthesis is an ‘idea’ which we have created emerges even more markedly when those fundamental main principles have either only very imperfectly or not at all been raised to the level of explicit consciousness or at least have not taken the form of explicitly elaborated complexes of ideas.” Max Weber: Objectivity in Social Science Ideal types usually represent what is essential to the expositor in that period in time. Ex. Christianity If a historian portrays the ideas he feels are essential to Christianity this will represent his “idea” of Christianity This ideal may differ from the values of other persons say the early Christians or people with similar beliefs but in different denominations This creates an invalid interpretation There must be a precise distinction between logically comparative analysis of reality by ideal types in the logical sense and the value judgment of reality on the basis of ideals. Max Weber: Discussion Questions Weber identified a technique used by historians called an “ideal type” which represents concepts that need to be explained by the historian to identify what the historian had in mind. Can you think of an example where this could be applied to today’s world and how could it be misinterpreted? How important do you feel that the explanation of ideal types is when a new idea or unfamiliar idea is brought forth? Can it be considered a good or bad thing when new ideas are brought forth differ from the collective empirical knowledge that exists? Basic Sociological Terms Max Weber - 1914 Preliminary Information Found at the beginning of Economy and Society Attempts to outline the basic tools of sociology Provides Weber’s view of sociology as a part of the social sciences Definition of Sociology and Social Action "Sociology is a science concerning itself with the interpretive understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences." Action relates to how an actor attaches “subjective meaning” to his/her behavior and it is “social” to the extent that its subjective meaning takes account of the behavior of others. Methodological Foundations 1. Meaning (two kinds) 1. 2. 2. the actual existing meaning of a particular actor or the average meaning given to a group of actors the theoretically conceived pure type of subjective meaning attributed to the actor/group Distinguishing meaningful action from simple reaction is difficult, and purely historical actions are often both active and reactive Methodological Foundations (cont.) 3. “All interpretation of meaning strives for clarity and verifiable accuracy.” Basis for certainty can be either rational (math/logic) or emotional (empathy/art). 1. For methodological reasons, it is preferable to treat all irrational action as a deviation from an typical rational course of action Weber emphasizes that rationality is a method of sociology and should not be the substance of sociology Methodological Foundations (cont.) 4. 5. “In all the sciences of human action, account must be taken of processes and phenomena which are devoid of subjective meaning…”(stimuli, results, circumstance) Understanding may be of two kinds: 1. Direct observational (speech, facial expressions) 2. Explanatory understanding (understanding the motive behind an action) Methodological Foundations (cont.) 6. Understanding involves the interpretive grasp of meaning in one of the following contexts: 1. 2. 3. Historical – intended meaning for concrete action Sociological mass phenomena – average intended meaning Ideal types – appropriate to scientific understanding Often we have only the 'imaginary experiment' - thinking away particular elements of a chain of motivation and thereby arriving at a causal judgment. Methodological Foundations (cont.) 7. Motive - a complex of subjective meanings which seems to account for the conduct in question 8. Processes and uniformities not designated as sociological because they are not “understandable” are not any less important. Such phenomena are treated as conditions, stimuli, or circumstance (furthering or hindering) Methodological Foundations (cont.) 9. Action ... exists only as the behavior of one or more individual human beings 1. 2. 3. Thinking on lower levels does not lead to subjective understandings. Social collectivities must be treated as modes of organization resulting from actions of individuals. Weber cautions against “organic” school of sociology, which focuses on the “whole” in which the individual may act. He believes that this is a valuable first step, but only a first step of sociological analysis. Methodological Foundations (cont.) 10. Sociological "laws" - or generalizations from typical probabilities observed 1. 2. "are both understandable and definite in the highest degree insofar as the typically observed point of action can be understood in terms of the purely rational pursuit of an end.“ It is when the means to such actions are clearly determined by the context, that it becomes clear that purely psychological approaches fail. Weber believed that using any kind of psychology as the ultimate foundation of the sociological interpretation of action to be flawed and erroneous Methodological Foundations (cont.) 11. Sociology differs from history in that we seek generalized uniformities and processes to form type concepts, which differs from the exact data proposed in a particular case by historians. Sociological concepts can contribute towards the causal explanation of historically and culturally significant phenomenon. Sociology can offer greater precision in concepts as a trade for precision in empirical cases while we seek a subjective understanding, actors may not be consciously aware of these motivations themselves. Actors often act out of impulse or habit. THE IDEAL TYPE AN IDEAL TYPE IS AN ANALYTICAL CONSTRUCT THAT SERVES THE SOCIAL INVESTIGATOR AS A MEASURING ROD TO ASCERTAIN THE SIMILARITIES AS WELL AS DEVIATIONS IN CONCRETE CASES. THE IDEAL TYPE INVOLVES AN ACCENTUATION OF THE "LOGICALLY CONSISTENT" INSTITUTION. IT IS A LOGICALLY PRECISE AND COHERNET WHOLE, THAT CAN NEVER BE FOUND AS SUCH IN REALITY. BUREAUCRACY BUREAUCRATIC COORDINATION OF HUMAN ACTIONS IS THE DISTINCTIVE MARK OF MODERN SOCIAL STRUCTURE Ideal Bureaucracy HIERARCHY IMPERSONALITY WRITTEN RULES OF CONDUCT ACHIEVEMENT SPECIALIZED DIVISION OF LABOR EFFICIENCY TYPES OF AUTHORITY: RATIONAL-LEGAL TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY CHARISMATIC CAUSALITY WEBER FIRMLY BELIEVED IN SOCIOLOGICAL CAUSALITY, BUT HE EXPRESSED CAUSALITY IN TERMS OF PROBABILITY. "WE ASSOCIATE THE HIGHEST MEASURE OF AN EMPIRICAL 'FEELING OF FREEDOM' WITH THOSE ACTIONS WHICH WE ARE CONSCIOUS OF PERFORMING RATIONALLY.“ PREDICTION BECOMES POSSIBLE ONLY WITHIN A SYSTEM OF CONCEPTUALIZATIONS THAT EXCLUDES CONCERN FOR MANY CONCRETE FACTS. RATIONALIZATION BUREAUCRACIES ARE BUILT ON THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFICIENCY AND CALCULABILITY. THEY PROGRESSIVELY REPLACE TRADITIONAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS WITH RATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS DESIGNED TO PERFORM LIKE MACHINES. TO BECOME INDUSTRIALIZED IS TO BECOME RATIONALIZED, A PROCESS AFFECTING EVERY AREA OF SOCIETY, THE MOST PUBLIC AND THE MOST PRIVATE, THE STATE AND THE ECONOMY AS WELL AS THE REALTIONS OF MARIAGE, FAMILY, AND PERSONAL FRIENDSHIPS. THE RESULT IS A SOCIETY THAT IS CONSTANTLY QUESTIONING TRADITIONAL WAYS, ABSOLUTE VALUES, AND CONSTANTLY DEVISING MORE RATIONAL WAYS TO ACHIEVE DESIRED ENDS. Social Action 1. Social action is oriented toward others. These can be past, present, or future, known or unknown. 2. Not every kind of action is social action. Overt action is non-social if it is oriented solely to the behavior of inanimate objects (religious activity such as personal meditation or prayer). 3. Not all contact is social (like a collision of two cyclists) if it is merely a natural accident. The discussion/confrontation that follows the crash would be. 4. Social action is not identical to similar actions across many people or every action influenced by other people. Putting up umbrellas due to rain is not a social action. Neither is simple imitation of others, if it is entirely reactive. Types of Social Action Social action may be oriented in four ways: 1. Instrumentally rational - Determined by expectations as to the behavior of objects or persons in the environment 2. Value rational- Determined by a conscious belief in the value for its own sake of some ethical , etc. behavior, independent of its success 3. Affectual (especially emotional) - Determined by the actors specific states and feelings 4. Traditional - Determined by ingrained habit. Types of Social Action 1. Strictly traditional behavior is often NOT social, but a matter of purely automatic reaction. 2. Purely affectual behavior also stands on the borderline of what can be "meaningfully" oriented - such as emotional reactions. 3. Value-rationality differs from affectual in its conscious formulation of the ultimate values guiding the action. These are people acting on their convictions, regardless of the outcome. 4. Action s instrumentally rational when the end, means and secondary results are all rationally taken into consideration and weighed. 5. It would be very unusual to find any type of social action that was solely one of these ways, nor is this thought to be an exhaustive list. Discussion Questions With Weber’s definitions of social action in mind, create some hypothetical scenarios in which social action occurs and then classify the type of social action it exhibits. Also create scenarios that do not fit Weber’s definition and explain why they are not examples of social action. Discussion Questions What examples from Weber’s Basic Sociological Terms are still relative in contemporary sociological theory and how? Did this work influence other famous sociologists? How has sociological theory evolved and how might it be different without the works of Max Weber? Max Weber The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Die protestantiche Ethik und der “Geist” des kapitalismus The Basic Idea A rise in rationalization, particularly rationalization of the economy To Weber, the most rational economic system is capitalism Capitalism arose when large numbers of people worked in the secular world, influenced by a work ethic derived from Protestantism, particularly Calvinism. This lead to the development of enterprises and accumulation of wealth. …continued Worldly activities, particularly business, were given positive social and moral meaning, ethically encouraged, and rationally pursued. NOT the goal of the religion, but rather a byproduct, giving rise to capitalism, allowing for the basic amount of accumulated wealth for capitalism to evolve. Paradox: Religious devotion is not typically associated with worldly success- Why is this so in Protestantism? The Protestant Ethic Calvinists believed in predestination- their salvation (or lack thereof) was already determined and what they did on Earth didn’t change it. Therefore, they looked for signs of their salvation, the major one being success in business. It was also their ethical duty to seek profit, or to be a good worker There was no guilt in being a successful capitalist, extorting workers, because success and failure economically was decided by God and a marker of divine favor. Protestant Ethic The new Protestant religions compelled people to work extremely hard in the secular world, making it more likely they’d accumulate wealth. However, these sects forbade using this wealth for materialism, luxury goods, etc., so the majority of this capital was re-invested into enterprise to be even more successful. All these beliefs about economic success add up to the Protestant Ethic Roots of the Protestant Ethic The Reformation- There was no longer solely salvation in the church. New Protestant religions that didn’t look to the church to earn or assure salvation, but rather that it was already pre-ordained. However, the average Protestant could not easily adjust to this new view, only “religious geniuses” like Martin Luther could accept this without question. Protestants began to look for other signs or divine signals that they were among the saved. Spirit of Capitalism Essentially the ideas and habits that favor the rational pursuit of economic gain. -This is the attitude of what Weber calls the “heroic enteprenuers”. Not motivated by greed for profit, as had been the case for the rest of history, but by an ethical system that encouraged hard work and economic success. Being successful and working hard was highly moral, and one’s moral duty. Spirit of Capitalism Systematical, rational pursuit of profit combined with frugality, punctuality, fairness, and the earning of money itself as a legitimate goal. This was not compatible with other religions, particularly Catholicism, allowing capitalism to first and more successfully evolve in Protestant countries. Capitalism Capitalism continued to be successful as the western world continued to become more and more secular. The religious underpinnings of capitalism’s success disappeared from society. However, the Protestant ethic was largely responsible for what Weber terms the “disenchantment of the Western world”, becoming an industrialized society free from “magic”. This thesis is quite a critique of Marx by stating that religion fostered capitalism, not that the base for capitalism was actually economic. Discussion Questions Do you think Weber’s thesis is valid? Did capitalism come from this Protestant ethic, or could there be other explanations (Marx, Polanyi)? Why or why not? How much of a role does religion play in the economy in today’s modern society? How much does modern society affect religion?