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BI 5103 FISIOLOGI TERINTEGRASI (Integrative Physiology) Core Principle 5: Structure/Function Relationships (Konsep Inti 5 : Hubungan antara Struktur dan Fungsi) Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 1 Why Structure/Function Relationships Understanding the behavior of an organism requires understanding the relationship between structure and function (at each and every level of organization). Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 2 To understand the behavior of the organism requires understanding the relationship between the structure and function of the organism. The structure of the organism both enables particular functions (makes them possible and determines the magnitude of what happens) and constrains functions (limits what can happen and the magnitude of what happens). Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 3 Sub Topics A.The three-dimensional structure of cells and tissues is a determinant of the functions of the cell and tissue B. Surface area is a determinant of the movement of all substances; hence, the surface area (and the surfaceto-volume ratio) is a determinant of function. C. All physical objects (cells, tissues, and organs) exhibit elastic recoil, which contributes to determining function. Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 4 A.The three-dimensional structure of cells and tissues is a determinant of the functions of the cell and tissue Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 5 An animal cell Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Rough endoplasmic reticulum Flagellum Not in most plant cells Lysosome Centriole Ribosomes Peroxisome Golgi apparatus Microtubule Cytoskeleton Plasma membrane Intermediate filament Microfilament Mitochondrion Sem I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 6 Figure 20.4 Apical surface of epithelium Basal lamina Underlying Cell nuclei tissue Simple squamous epithelium Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Simple cuboidal epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium Figure 20.5 White blood cells Red blood cell Central canal Plasma Cell nucleus Collagen fiber Elastic fibers Matrix Blood Bone Loose connective tissue (under the skin) Cell nucleus Collagen fibers Cartilageforming cells Fat droplets Fibrous connective tissue (forming a tendon) Boneforming cells Matrix Cartilage (at the end of a bone) Adipose tissue Figure 20.6 Muscle fiber Unit of muscle contraction Muscle fiber (cell) Nuclei Junction between two cells Nucleus Cardiac muscle Muscle fiber Nucleus Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Figure 20.8 Small intestine Lumen Epithelial tissue (columnar epithelium) Connective tissue Smooth muscle tissue (two layers) Connective tissue Epithelial tissue Nucleus Rough endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Microtubule Not in animal cells Central vacuole Intermediate filament Cytoskeleton Chloroplast Microfilament Cell wall Mitochondrion Peroxisome Plasma membrane Sem I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 11 Figure 31.3 Terminal bud Blade Leaf Flower Petiole Axillary bud Stem Shoot system Node Epidermal cell Internode Taproot Root system Root hairs Root hairs Root hair B. Surface area is a determinant of the movement of all substances; hence, the surface area (and the surfaceto-volume ratio) is a determinant of function. Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 13 10 µm 30 µm 30 µm Surface area of one large cube = 5,400 µm2 10 µm Total surface area of 27 small cubes = 16,200 µm2 C. All physical objects (cells, tissues, and organs) exhibit elastic recoil, which contributes to determining function. Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 15 Esophageal sphincter (contracted) Bolus of food Bolus of food Muscles contract, constricting passageway and pushing bolus down Muscles relax, allowing passageway to open Stomach CONTEXT WITHIN PHYSIOLOGY This “core principle” is, on one level, a fairly abstract statement of the obvious interaction between the way in which the pieces of a mechanism are assembled into a system and the functions that the system can carry out. Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 17 However, it also describes several very specific examples of commonalities that extend across many different physiological systems. For example, when two systems carry out similar functions, certain features of their structure can be expected to be similar. Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 18 EXAMPLE Gas exchange in the lungs and absorption of the products of digestion in the small intestine occur (in the latter case, only in part) by the process of passive diffusion. To maximize the flux of material across a membrane, there must be a large surface area available, and the thickness of the barrier to diffusion must be minimized. In both examples cited, these conditions are present as a result of the structure of the respective systems. Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 19 Vein with blood en route to the liver Lumen of intestine Nutrient absorption Epithelial cells Muscle layers Lumen of intestine Nutrient absorption into epithelial cells Microvilli Amino Fatty acids acids and and sugars glycerol Lumen Fats Blood capillaries Large circular folds Lymph vessel Villi Blood Lymph Nutrient absorption Epithelial cells lining villus Villi Intestinal wall Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 20 To the heart Nasal cavity Left lung Pharynx (Esophagus) From the heart Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor blood Bronchiole Larynx Trachea CO2 O2 Right lung Bronchus Bronchiole Alveoli Blood capillaries Diaphragm (Heart) Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 21 Epithelial Tissue Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 22 Apical surface of epithelium Basal lamina Underlying Cell nuclei tissue Simple squamous epithelium Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Simple cuboidal epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 23 Connective Tissue Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 24 White blood cells Red blood cell Central canal Plasma Cell nucleus Matrix Blood Collagen fiber Elastic fibers Bone Loose connective tissue (under the skin) Cell nucleus Collagen fibers Cartilageforming cells Fat droplets Fibrous connective tissue (forming a tendon) Boneforming cells Matrix Cartilage (at the end of a bone) Adipose tissue Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 25 Muscle Tissue Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 26 Muscle fiber Unit of muscle contraction Muscle fiber (cell) Junction between two cells Nucleus Cardiac muscle Nuclei Muscle fiber Nucleus Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 27 Small intestine Lumen Epithelial tissue (columnar epithelium) Connective tissue Smooth muscle tissue (two layers) Connective tissue Epithelial tissue Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 28 Respiratory Surface Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 29 Cross section of the respiratory surface (the outer skin) CO2 O2 Capillaries Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 30 Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Water flow Lamella Blood vessels Operculum (gill cover) Gill arch Water flow between lamellae Blood flow through capillaries in a lamella Countercurrent exchange Water flow, showing % O2 Gill filaments Diffusion of O2 from water to blood 100 70 40 15 80 60 30 5 Blood flow in simplified capillary, showing % O2 Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 31 Tracheae Air sacs Tracheoles Opening for air Body cell Tracheole Air sac Trachea O2 Semester I 2013/2014 Body wall CO2 tjandraanggraeni 32 To the heart Nasal cavity Left lung Pharynx (Esophagus) From the heart Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor blood Bronchiole Larynx Trachea CO2 O2 Right lung Bronchus Bronchiole Alveoli Blood capillaries Diaphragm (Heart) Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 33 Morphology Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 34 Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 35 The explanation relates to hairs, called setae, on the gecko’s toes – They are arranged in rows – Each seta ends in many split ends called spatulae, which have rounded tips Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 36 Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 37 Shark Seal Penguin Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 38 Eudicot leaf Vein Cuticle Upper epidermis Xylem Phloem Mesophyll Guard cells Lower epidermis Stoma Sheath Monocot stem Eudicot stem Vascular bundle Vascular bundle Cortex Pith Epidermis Vascular Xylem cylinder Phloem Epidermis Epidermis Eudicot root Phloem Vascular Xylem cylinder Central core of cells Monocot root Epidermis Key Cortex Endodermis Dermal tissue system Cortex Ground tissue system Endodermis Vascular tissue system Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 39 Eudicot leaf Vein Cuticle Upper epidermis Xylem Phloem Mesophyll Guard cells Lower epidermis Stoma Sheath Key Dermal tissue system Ground tissue system Vascular tissue system Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 40 Pits Secondary cell wall Fiber cells Primary cell wall Fiber Secondary cell wall Primary cell wall Sclereid cells Pits Sclereid Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 41 Pits Vessel element Tracheids Pits Openings in end wall Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 42 Sieve-tube element Sieve plate Companion cell Primary cell wall Cytoplasm 15 m Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 43 Vascular cylinder Root hair Cortex Epidermis Zone of differentiation Cellulose fibers Zone of elongation Zone of cell division (including apical meristem) Root cap Key Dermal tissue system Ground tissue system Vascular tissue system Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 44 Year 1 Late Summer Year 1 Early Spring Year 2 Late Summer Shed epidermis Primary xylem Vascular cambium Epidermis Cortex Primary phloem Secondary xylem (wood) Vascular cambium Cork Cork cambium Secondary phloem Secondary xylem (2 years’ growth) Bark Key Dermal tissue system Ground tissue system Vascular tissue system Semester I 2013/2014 tjandraanggraeni 45