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THE EMERGENCE OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE
The Rise of Antony: (Marcus Antonius)
1. The Murder of the Dictator: Julius Caesar
a. The Official Heads of State.
1. The surviving consul, Marcus
Antonius.
2. The Magister Equitum, M. Aemilus
Lepidus.
b. The conspirators were forced to withdraw to the
Capitol, where they were joined by Cicero.
Regret: Cassius’ failure to persuade Brutus that
Antony should have been killed with Caesar.
2. Actions of Antony:
a. Secured Caesar’s papers and treasurers from his
widow, Calpurnia.
b. Obtained the co-operation of Lepidus who as a
provincial governorhad troops outside of Rome -these were brought into the city.
c. Gained the support of P. Dolabella by allowing
him to fill the vacant Consulship.
3. In the Senate: Cicero’s compromise between the Cesareans
and Republicans.
* Caesar’s murderers were to receive amnesty, while
Caesar’s will and acts were to be respected and his
funeral was to be celebrated.
4. Antony Published Caesar’s Will:
a. Antony was disappointed at Caesar’s great
nephew, Octavian, becoming the chief heir of
Caesar.
b. Caesar left his fine gardens beyond the Tiber to
the Roman People and 300 sesterces to every Roman
Citizen.
Octavian was adopted as his son and became heir to
three quarters of his estate.
5. Caesar’s Funeral:
a. Against Cassius’ advice, Brutus allowed Antony
to deliver the customary funeral oration (laudatio
funebris).
b. Antony succeeded in stirring up the people against
the murderers of Caesar.
c. Brutus and Cassius were forced to flee from Rome
less than a month afterthe murder. (Yet, they
remained in Italy.)
6. Further Actions of Antony:
a. Secured for Lepidus the Office of Pontifex
Maximus.
b. Appeased the Senate by proposing the
permanent abolition of the dictatorship.
c. As consuls, the Senate allotted Macedonia to
Antony and Syria to Dolabella.
d. Secured the removal of Brutus and Cassius from
their duties as Praetors.
e. Passed an agrarian bill providing land in Italy for
Caesar’s veterans.
7. Result: Two months after Caesar’s death Antony was in
control.
The Rise of Octavian:
1. C. Octavius was born in the year of Cicero’s Consulship (63
BC) at Velitrae near Rome.
2. Lost his father at an early age and was raised by his mother,
Atia, the niece of Julius Caesar.
3. 44 BC: Octavian was at Appolonia in Illyricum, receiving
some military trainingfor the Parthian War. (18 years old)
a. Decided to cross over into Italy: a bold and
dangerous move.
b. When he reached Brundisium, he discovered that
Caesar had adopted him and made him his heir.
c. Using the name C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus, he
reached Rome by the end of April.
4. Octavian turned to Antony -- Caesar’s former colleague and
supporter.
Antony was not prepared to relinquish Caesar’s
money which he had taken over and some of which
he had spent.
Octavian began to pay off Caesar’s legacies from his
own resources.
5. Antony’s Position Strengthened:
A law was passed transferring Cisalpine and
Transalpine Gaul to him for 5 years in place of
Macedonia - yet he retained command of his
Macedonian Legions.
6. Brutus and Cassius decided to depart from Italy for Macedonia
and Syria.
7. By September: Cicero had returned to Rome and began to
attack Antony in the first of a series of speeches, the Philippics.
8. Efforts of Octavian:
a. Antony had gone to Cisalpine Gaul whose
governor had refused to leave it.
b. By appealing to Caesar’s veterans and by his own
efforts (without any legal authority) Octavian raised
a considerable force including two of Antony’s
legions back from Macedonia.
c. Cicero (in his Philippics) persuaded the Senate
and people that Antony was aiming at a
dictatorship, and that Octavian should be used as
long as they needed his help.
1. Octavian was to be made Senator
and a Propraetor in order to cooperate.
2. Octavian along with the two consuls
were sent against Antony in Cisalpine
Gaul.
9. Two battles were fought between Mutina (Modena) and
Bononia (Bologna).
a. Antony was defeated and fled to Transalpine Gaul.
b. Both consuls had died leaving Octavian in
command of the consular armies.
1. The Senate declared Antony a public
enemy (as well as Lepidus).
2. Brutus and Cassius were grated their
commands in Macedonia and Syria
receiving maius imperium in the East.
10. The Reaction of Octavian:
a. He demanded the Consulship which the Senate
ignored by offering him a praetorship.
b. Octavian marched on Rome where he was elected
consul suffectus (one appointed to finish the
unexpired term of another) together with an
obscurerelative Q. Pedius.
11. The Republican Cause: Cicero’s Policy
a. Lepidus in Narbonese Gaul decided to support
Antony.
b. Two other former officers of Caesar decided to
join Antony: C. Asinius Pollio from further Spain
and L. Munatius Plancus from Northern Gaul.
c. In Rome: a lex curiata confirmed Julius Caesar’s
adoption of Octavian.
d. Pedius got a measure passed revoking the amnesty
granted in 44 BC to Caesar’s murderers.
Brutus’ and Cassius’ command of
forces in the East would lead to further
civil war.
e. Pedius also persuaded the Senate to revoke the
decrees of outlawry against Antony and Lepidus,
whom Octavian now decided to meet.
Cicero’s policy had failed, and the Republic was
again at the mercy of men who commanded the
loyalty of the legions.
The Second Triumvirate and Philippi:
1. Octavian’s Rise to Power:
By appealing to the plebs and veterans, he raised a
private army and built up a political faction of
friends, men of ambition and ability including the
Roman Knights: Q. Salvidienus Rufus, M.
Vispanius Agrippa, and C. Maecenas.
* Octavian had also become Consul
before he was twenty.
2. Octavian met Antony and Lepidus on a small island in a river
near Bononia.
a. It was decided to have themselves appointed
Triumviri Reipublica Constituedae for five years
with authority to make laws and to nominate
magistrates and governors.
b. Distinction: Unlike the First Triumvirate which
was a private agreement between its members to
work together for their mutual benefit, the Second
Triumvirate (which came into being on November
27, 43 BC by a bill passed by the Tribal Assembly)
was a formal magistracy legally appointed which
could dominate the Senate and State.
c. Division of the Western Provinces:
1. Antony retained Transalpine and
Cisalpine Gaul -- a strong position from
which he could keep a watch on Italy.
2. Lepidus took the rest of Gaul and all
of Spain.
3. Octavian received Africa, Sicily,
and Sardinia.
d. It was decided that Lepidus would be Consul for
42 BC, while Antony and Octavian attacked the
Republican Armies in the East.
* To advertise their rule, all three
issued coins bearing their portraits.
3. Need for Political Security and Money: Proscriptions (i.e.
example of Marius and Sulla.)
a. Some 300 senators and 2,000 knights were
executed and their property was confiscated.
b. The most famous victim, on whose death Antony
insisted, was Marcus Tullius Cicero.
* Antony had his head and hands hung
on the Rostra in the Forum at Rome.
* Republican Opposition in the West
had come to an end.
4. Republican Opposition: In the East
a. In the East - both Brutus and Cassius had built up
powerful armies.
b. Brutus had become a Republican rallying point
-- issuing coins referring to the Ides of March and
showing daggers of the Liberators.
1. Late in 43 BC: instead of advancing
into Italy, Brutus moved (against the
advice of Cicero) into Asia to meet
Cassius.
2. In the interval: Cassius had defeated
Dolabella (Antony’s consular
colleague of 44) in Syria.
3. Cassius then joined Brutus in
overrunning Asia Minor meeting at
Sardes.
* They reached the
Hellespont by September
42 BC with 19 legions
and a powerful fleet.
c. Octavian’s prestige had risen: he had become the
son of a god (divi filius).
The Senate had recognized Julius Caesar as a god on
1 January 42 BC
1. He and Antony took 28 legions
against Brutus and Cassius.
2. Republican forces wee found in a
strong position at Philippi on the Via
Egnatia.
3. Both Brutus and Cassius were
eventually defeated who then
committed suicide.
5. A Second Division of Western Provinces:
a. Antony took all Gaul except Cisalpine which
became a part of Italy.
b. Lepidus who was suspected of conspiring with
Republicans was ignored.
c. Octavian received Spain, Sardinia, and Africa.
6. Antony was to go to the East to raise necessary funds and reestablish order there.
Octavian’s Consolidation of the West:
1. Octavian needed land in Italy for around 100,000 veterans.
a. Protest In Rome: supported by Antony’s wife
Fulvia and his brother L. Antonius (consul in 42
BC).
By use of propaganda, L. Antonius
raised eight legions and occupied
Rome.
b. Octavian aided by Salvidienus and Agrippa
forced Antony’s forces out of Rome -- they fled to
Perusia (Perugia) where they were forced to
surrender.
1. Lucius Antonius was spared and
made governor of Spain.
2. Salvidienus occupied Gaul where
Antony’s legate had died, and Lepidus
was given Africa.
2. The Treaty of Brundisium:
a. Antony returned to the West in 40 BC and was
allowed to enter Italy at Brundisium.
1. Antony then began to overrun
Southern Italy until Octavian’s forces
arrived.
2. Civil War was avoided through an
agreement arranged by Maecenas and
Asinus Pollio.
b. The Treaty (October 40 BC)
1. Antony was to keep control of the
East.
2. Transalpine and Narbonese Gaul
were added to Octavian’s previous
command.
3. Lepidus’ control of Africa was
recognized.
c. Antony warned Octavian that Salvidienus was
plotting against him.
* He was recalled to Rome and
executed.
d. Marriage Alliance: Antony, whose wife had
died, married Octavian’s sister, Octavia.
3. Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great, complicated the
situation in the West.
a. He had occupied both Sicily and Sardinia, and had
hoped for official recognition in the Treaty of
Brundisium.
b. Sextus began to interfere with Rome’s overseas
corn supply until the triumvirs decided to meet him
near the promontory of Misenum (39 BC).
1. It was decided to give Sextus
proconsular command for five years in
Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and Achaea.
2. Exiles that had joined him then were
to have their property restored.
c. A break came when Sextus’ governor, Menas,
offered to hand over Sardinia to Octavian and he
accepted.
Octavian also divorced Scribonia, a
relative of Sextus, on the day she gave
birth to his daughter, Julia.
Octavian had fallen in love with Livia,
the wife of Ti. Claudius Nero who at
the time of the Perusine War had fled
with her and their child Tiberius (the
future emperor) to join Sextus in Sicily.
* Octavian married Livia
and Lived with her for
fifty years.
d. 36 BC: Sextus was defeated in a Naval Battle in
the straits at Sicily.
* Sextus fled to the East where he was
put to death on Antony’s orders.
4. Lepidus: commanded 22 legions after the surrender of some
Pompeian troops.
a. He claimed the island (Sicily) and ordered
Octavian to leave.
b. Lepidus’ troops did not want further fighting and
began to desert to Octavian.
c. Octavian spared his life (Lepidus) and allowed
him to remain Pontifex Maximus, but deprived him
of his triumviral powers.
* Lepidus’ public career was ended.
5. Italy’s Greatest Need:
a. Security and prosperity for Italy and the West.
b. Octavian identified his cause with that of his
country.
c. He had a sincere respect for Italian tradition and
thought contrasted with Antony’s increasing
leaning towards eastern tradition.
6. In Rome:
a. Octavian and his friends (Agrippa, Maecenas, and
Statilius Taurus) began to adorn the city with new
buildings, as well as providing good water and
cheap food.
b. To emphasize Rome’s earlier beliefs and
traditions: he expelled astrologers and magicians,
banished eastern rites, and repaired old shrines and
temples.
7. The Second Triumvirate In Trouble:
a. The Roman World was split in two: Octavian had
eliminated his rivals in the West and controlled
Sicily, Africa, Corsica, Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain.
b. The Triumvirate was further weakened by
Antony’s treatment of Octavia and the elimination of
Lepidus.
Antony In the East:
1. After Philippi Antony (in agreement with Octavian) had gone
to the eastern provinces to raise money.
2. Antony summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus to meet him.
a. The reason probably was his need for the
treasures of the Ptolemies.
b. Antony had first met her in Alexandria, and then
in Rome when she was living there as Caesar’s
mistress.
c. After Caesar’s death she returned to Alexandria
where she killed her young brother and consort,
Ptolemy XIII
d. Cleopatra realized that Antony’s support would
strengthen her rule in Egypt.
After the Tarsus meeting Cleopatra
returned to Egypt where Antony joined
her for the Winter (41/40), but left in
the Spring and did not see her for four
years (nor his twins which she gave
birth to).
3. Antony Faced Two Wars:
a. The Parthians were invading Syria.
b. The Parthini (an Illyrian tribe, not to be confused
with the Parthians) were invading Macedonia.
* Antony also had to negotiate terms at
Brundisium.
4. Antony made Athens his headquarters where he lived with his
wife Octavia.
a. He restored order in both Macedonia and Syria.
b. In 37 BC: After Jerusalem was captured, he
installed Herod as King of Judea (the reign of Herod
the Great had begun).
5. Late in 37: Antony sent Octavia back to Italy as she was
expecting a child.
a. Cleopatra then joined Antony in Antioch.
b. To the Romans Antony’s legal wife was still
Octavia who continued to protect his interests in the
West.
c. Antony formally acknowledged his children by
Cleopatra and renamed them Alexander Helios (the
sun) and Cleopatra Selene (the moon).
d. Antony gave Cleopatra control of Goel-Syria,
Cyprus, and part of Cilicia.
6. Spring of 36: Antony sent Cleopatra who was expecting
another child (Ptolemy Philadelphus) back to Egypt and then
launched his attack on Parthia.
7. The Parthian Campaign of 36 BC was a disaster.
a. Both Cleopatra and Octavian had prepared
supplies of food and clothing for Antony’s starving
army: Antony only accepted Cleopatra’s gift.
b. In 34 BC: Antony invaded Armenia and captured
King Artavasdes.
* Armenia became a Roman province,
but only for two years.
8. Antony and Cleopatra:
a. Cleopatra’s aim appeared to be an extension of her
kingdom and a revival of the empire of the
Ptolemies.
b. Antony’s Problem: his ability to persuade his
troops, who might be ready to be led against
Octavian, to fight for Cleopatra or himself who
might be a king of Egypt.
9. Autumn 34 BC: The Donation of Alexandria
a. Antony and Cleopatra (who was robed as the
goddess Isis) appeared on a golden throne with their
children.
a. Antony proclaimed Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar) as
the legitimate son of Julius Caesar.
* Thus by implication the adopted son,
Octavian, was a usurper.
1. Caesarion was proclaimed King of
Kings, and his mother Cleopatra,
Queen of Kings.
2. Both were recognized as joint
monarchs of Egypt and Cyprus.
c. Antony’s Children:
1. Alexander Helios: received
Armenia, Parthia, and Media.
2. Ptolemy Philadelphus: received
Syria and Cilicia.
3. Cleopatra Selene: received
Cyrenaica and Libya.
d. Antony avoided taking any royal title for himself,
and announced these arrangements by virtue of his
triumviral powers.
The Final Break and War: Actium
1. News of Antony’s actions reached Rome in the Spring of 33
BC
A War of Propaganda: Antony was pictured as
demoralized in the thrall of an Eastern Fury.
2. Octavian needed to win over public opinion.
a. Antony offered to lay aside his triumviral powers,
if Octavian would do the same.
* No response was given.
b. At the end of 33 the Second Triumvirate came to a
legal end: No official action was taken.
1. Antony kept the title and acted as if
he was still in office.
2. Octavian dropped the title and was
prepared to take the risk and rely on his
prestige, his auctoritas.
* He would be consul in 31 BC
3. Consuls of 32: C. Sosius and Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus were
supporters of Antony.
a. Sosius propose a vote of censure against Octavian
in the Senate.
* It was vetoed by a tribune.
b. When Octavian defended himself at another
meeting, and attacked Antony, the two consuls and
over three hundred senators left Rome to join
Antony.
c. Antony then sent Octavia formal letters of
divorce.
4. Octavian seized Antony’s will, which was deposited with the
Vestal Virgins, and read it to the Senate.
It acknowledged Caesarion, provided for Antony’s
own children by Cleopatra, and ordered that he
should be buried at Cleopatra’s side.
5. Propaganda: Octavian spread the rumor that Antony hoped to
transfer the capital to Alexandria.
a. Italian communities and many in the western
provinces passed a vote of confidence in Octavian.
b. They took an oath of allegiance (coniuratio) to
Octavian personally becoming clientela of an
individual party leader.
Importance: Personal allegiance to a dux was
replacing loyalty to constitutional forms.
* Octavian later described this as a personal mandate
to proceed against Antony.
"Iuravit in mea verba tota Italia spote
sua et me quo vici ad Actium ducem
depoposcit."
6. Antony, who had crossed with Cleopatra and his forces to
Greece was deprived of his powers and prospective Consulship
for 31 BC
* Octavian formally proclaimed a iustum bellum
against Cleopatra.
7. Antony’s Problems:
a. His supporters were former followers of Julius
Caesar, Republicans, and Pompeians.
b. Lack of a cause to unite them: personal loyalty
to Antony was not enough, and the presence of
Cleopatra alienated some.
* desertions began, but Cleopatra
provided much of the financial support.
8. Antony took up a defensive position in Greece.
a. He headquartered himself at Patrae and his fleet
and army were centered on the promontory of
Actium on the Gulf of Ambracia.
b. Antony hoped for a land rather than a sea battle.
9. Actions of Octavian:
a. Octavian left Maecenas in Rome and took most of
the senators still in Italy with him.
b. His army occupied a position just north of
Actium.
c. Octavian’s fleet, commanded by Agrippa,
captured Leucas, Patrae, and Corinth cutting Antony
off from the Peloponnese and began to interfere with
his supplies by sea.
d. Antony rejected a suggestion that he should retire
to Macedonia and fight by land, and followed
Cleopatra’s advice to use the fleet.
10. 2 September 31 BC: Antony drew up his fleet (500 ships) off
Actium in three squadrons.
a. When his center and left wing began to retreat,
Antony signaled Cleopatra to escape.
b. Antony managed to join her with forty ships while
the rest of the fleet was captured or surrendered.
Octavian had to go to Italy to provide
for pay and settlement of his veterans
before following Antony.
11. Summer of 30 BC: Octavian reached Egypt and occupied
Alexandria which Antony could not defend.
a. Hearing a rumor that Cleopatra was dead, Antony
committed suicide.
b. Cleopatra was taken prisoner. When she
discovered she could not retain her kingdom for her
children she died by the bite of the asp which the
Egyptians believed deified its victims.
12. Octavian secured what he needed most, the treasure of the
Ptolemies.
a. He was lenient toward Antony’s followers and his
children by Cleopatra.
b. The children were brought up by Octavia -- Selene
ultimately married Juba II of Maurentania.
c. He executed Antony’s elder son by Fulvia,
Antyllus. Caesarion, the son of Cleopatra and Julius
Caesar was also killed.
* Octavian could not allow a potential
rival to survive.
13. Egypt was annexed, but not as an ordinary roman province, it
became the private possession of the Roman Emperor.
14. On 11 January 29 BC: the Temple of Janus in Rome closed,
a symbol of restored peace.
a. In the Summer Octavian returned to Italy and
celebrated a triple triumph
(ie. Illyricum, Actium, and Egypt).
b. The Republic and liberty was gone; men now
turned gratefully to their new savior.