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GRAMMAR GUIDE
North Salem Middle / High School
North Salem Grammar Guide 1
Commonly Confused Words
Words
Accept / Except
Affect / Effect
Allude / Elude
Allusion / Illusion
Breath / Breathe
Capital / Capitol
Cite / Site / Sight
Complement / Compliment
Conscience / Conscious
Counsel / Council
Defuse / Diffuse
Dual / Duel
Every Day / Everyday
Distinction
Accept is a verb that means "to take in." The preposition
except means "other than." The verb expect means to
"depend on" or "await."
Affect is usually a verb meaning "to influence." Effect is
usually a noun meaning "result." When used as a verb, effect
means "to cause."
To allude to something means to make an indirect reference.
(Don't use allude to mean "to refer directly.") To elude means
to evade or to escape understanding or attention.
The noun allusion means "an indirect reference to a person,
event, or thing." Illusion is a noun that means "false
impression."
Breath is a noun. Breathe is a verb.
Capital has multiple meanings: (1) a city that serves as the
seat of government; (2) wealth in the form of money or
property; (3) an asset or advantage; (4) a capital letter (the
type of letter used at the beginning of a sentence). Capitol
refers to the building in which a legislative assembly meets.
(Remember that the o in capitol is like the o in the dome of a
capitol.)
The verb cite means to mention or quote as an authority or
example. The noun sight refers to something that is seen or
the power or process of seeing. The noun site means a
particular place.
Complement means "something that completes or brings to
perfection." (For a definition of the grammatical term, see
complement.) A compliment is an expression of praise.
The noun conscience means "the sense of what is right and
wrong." The adjective conscious means "being aware" or
"deliberate."
The noun council refers to a government body or an assembly
of officials. The noun counsel means advice, guidance, or
consultation. As a verb, counsel means to advise.
The verb defuse means to remove a fuse (from a bomb, for
example) or to make a situation less dangerous, harmful, or
tense. The verb diffuse means to spread out or scatter. As an
adjective, diffuse means widely spread or wordy.
The adjective dual means double or twofold. Duel is a noun
or verb referring to a fight or struggle.
The adjective everyday (written as one word) means routine,
ordinary, or commonplace. The adverb every day (two
words) means each day.
North Salem Grammar Guide 2
Fare / Fair
Farther / Further
Hanged / Hung
Have / Of
Its / It’s
Lay / Lie
Lightening / Lightning
Literally / Figuratively
Quotation / Quote
Than / Then
Their / There
To / Too
Who / Whom
The adjective fair means just and unbiased or pleasing, clear,
and clean. The noun fair (as in "state fair") refers to an
exhibition or exposition. The noun fare refers to food and
drink or a transportation fee (as in "bus fare"). The verb fare
(as in "fare thee well") means to go, get along, succeed.
Farther usually refers to physical distance. Further refers to
an extension of time or degree.
Hanged, not hung, should be used when referring to
executions: convicted killers are hanged; posters are hung.
Use have, not of, as an auxiliary verb with could, must,
should, would, may, and might. Of is a preposition.
Its is a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction of "it is" or
occasionally "it has." The apostrophe in it's is a mark of
omission, not possession.
The verb lay means "to put"; it takes a direct object. The verb
lie means "to rest"; it does not take a direct object. Don't
confuse the past and past participle forms of these verbs:
LAY (present), laid (past), and laid (past participle)
LIE (present), lay (past), and lain (past participle)
The noun lightening means making lighter in weight or
changing to a lighter or brighter color. Lightning is the flash
of light that accompanies thunder.
Literally means "really" or "actually" or "in the strict sense of
the word." Don't confuse it with figuratively, which means
"in an analogous or metaphorical sense," not in the exact
sense.
In formal English, quotation is a noun, quote a verb.
Use than to make a comparison. Use then when referring to
time.
Their is the possessive form of they. There is an adverb
(meaning "at that place") and a pronoun used to start a
sentence. They're is a contraction of they are.
The preposition to refers to a place, direction, or position. To
is also used before the verb in an infinitive. The adverb too
means "also" or "excessively."
Use who when a sentence requires a subject
pronoun(equivalent to he or she). In formal English, use
whom when a sentence requires an object pronoun(equivalent
to him or her).
North Salem Grammar Guide 3
Grammar on Standardized Tests
The “Writing Section” of the SAT exam and the “English Section” of the ACT exam require
students to
• recognize clear and effective writing
•
improve a piece of writing through revision and editing
•
identify sentence and paragraph structural errors
•
identify correct sentence and paragraph structure
•
combine sentences and utilize transitions effectively
Below are the common problems associated with the four characteristics of effective writing that
are tested on the SAT and ACT examinations. Sample questions isolating each problem follow.
Writing Problem
Sentence Illustrating the
Problem
Should be...
After he broke his arm, he is
home for two weeks.
After he broke his arm, he
was home for two weeks.
1. Being consistent
Sequence of tenses
Shift of pronoun
If one is tense, they should try If one is tense, one should try
to relax.
to relax.
Parallelism
She skis, plays tennis, and
flying hang gliders.
She skis, plays tennis, and
flies hang gliders.
Noun agreement
Carmen and Sarah want to be
a pilot.
Carmen and Sarah want to be
pilots.
Pronoun reference
Several people wanted the
job, and he or she filled out
the required applications.
Several people wanted the
job, and they filled out the
required applications.
Subject-verb agreement
There is eight people on the
shore.
There are eight people on the
shore.
Tawanda has a rash, and she
is probably allergic to
something.
Tawanda has a rash; she is
probably allergic to
something.
2. Expressing ideas logically
Coordination and
subordination
Logical comparison
Nathan grew more vegetables Nathan grew more vegetables
than his neighbor's garden.
than his neighbor grew.
North Salem Grammar Guide 4
Modification and word
order
Barking loudly, the tree had
the dog's leash wrapped
around it.
Barking loudly, the dog
wrapped its leash around the
tree.
In the newspaper they say that
few people voted.
The newspaper reported that
few people voted.
3. Being clear and precise
Ambiguous and vague
pronouns
Diction
He circumvented the globe on He circumnavigated the globe
his trip.
on his trip.
Wordiness
There are many problems in
the contemporary world in
which we live.
There are many problems in
the contemporary world.
Improper modification
If your car is parked here
while not eating in the
restaurant, it will be towed
away.
If you park here and do not
eat in the restaurant, your car
will be towed away.
Pronoun case
He sat between you and I at
the stadium.
He sat between you and me at
the stadium.
Idiom
Natalie had a different
opinion for her.
Natalie had a different
opinion of her.
Comparison of modifiers
Of the sixteen executives,
Naomi makes more money.
Of the sixteen executives,
Naomi makes the most
money.
Sentence fragment
Fred having to go home early.
Fred has to go home early.
4. Following conventions
Comma splice
Mary took time out of her
Mary took time out of her
busy schedule to visit her
busy schedule to visit her
aunt, John decided to continue
aunt, but John decided to
working through the summer. continue working through the
summer.
North Salem Grammar Guide 5
Sample SAT “Writing” Questions
Sequence of Tenses
Before he sprained his back, Morgan (A) spends (B) much of his leisure time (C) engaged in
outdoor sports, (D) particularly hiking, and canoeing. (E) No error.
Shift of pronoun:
We do not have absolute personal freedom because what anyone does would have an effect on
other people’s lives.
a. freedom because what anyone does would have an effect on other people’s lives
b. freedom because it has an effect on the lives of other people
c. freedom because what we do affects other people
d. freedom, and the reason is the effect our actions have on other people
e. freedom, our actions having an effect on other people
Parallelism
The price of gold has been influenced by continued inflation and because people have lost faith
in the dollar.
a. because people have lost faith
b. because of the loss of faith
c. by people which have lost faith
d. losing faith
e. loss of faith
Noun Agreement
(A) Much of the success of Frank Capra and George Stevens (B) as a director of motion pictures
can be (C) attributed to the (D) technical work of talented film editors. (E) No error.
Pronoun Reference
George Emmons (A) was one of a handful of ethnographers who (B) committed (C) their life (D)
to studying the Tlingit culture of the Northwest Coast. (E) No error.
Subject-Verb Agreement:
The convenience and availability of watercolor paint account for its popularity with amateur
artists.
a. account for its popularity
North Salem Grammar Guide 6
b. account for their popularity
c. accounts for its popularity
d. is why it is popular
e. are a reason for its popularity
Coordination and Subordination
He arranged the gems on the counter, the sales assistant proceeded to tell us about the origins of
each stone.
a. He arranged the gems
b. The gems, which were arranged
c. The gems were first arranged
d. After arranging the gems
e. He, having arranged the gems
Logical Comparison
If we compare the number of alligators with the Gila monster over time, we see that the alligator
is in decline.
a. If we compare the number of alligators with the Gila monster over time, we see that the
alligator is
b. Comparing the number of alligators and Gila monster, we see that alligators are
c. In comparison with Gila monsters, the number of alligators are
d. To compare the alligator with the Gila monster is to show that
e. A comparison over time of the numbers of alligators and Gila monsters shows that
alligators
Modification and Word Order:
Before signing up for next year’s courses, the students’ schedules must be approved by their
advisers.
a. the students’ schedules must be approved by their advisers
b. the students must have their schedules approved by their advisers
c. their advisers must approve the schedule of each student
d. the schedules of students must be approved, and by their advisers
e. approval of each one’s schedule must be given by their advisers
North Salem Grammar Guide 7
Ambiguous or Vague Pronoun
The office manager and her coworker, Ms. Andrews, (A) received equal pay from the company
(B) until (C) she got a raise (D) for helping to increase productivity. (E) No error.
Diction
Insofar as so many people were going to the music festival, the highway was jammed with cars.
a. Insofar as so many people were going
b. With the great many people who are going
c. In that there being so many people who went
d. Because there was a great many people who went
e. Because so many people were going
Wordiness
For as many as twenty years and more Joseph Conrad lived the life of a sailor.
a. For as many as twenty years and more
b. For not much more than about twenty years
c. For a little over twenty years and more
d. For twenty years and then some
e. For more than twenty years
Improper Modification
It (A) was fortunate that the inexperienced veterinarian (B) was able (C) to examine the injured
horse (D) calm and with confidence. (E) No error.
Pronoun Case
Ms. Tanaka asked (A) Juan and I (B) whether we (C) would consider (D) joining our school’s
quiz bowl team. (E) No error.
Idiom
Early American factories did not so much replace household manufacturing but complement it.
a. but complement
b. as complement
c. but they complemented
d. and they complemented
e. as they were to complement
North Salem Grammar Guide 8
Comparison of Modifiers
Fifty years ago, movies (A) on biblical themes, (B) far from being the (C) more controversial
Hollywood offerings, (D) were among the least. (E) No error.
Sentence Fragment
Which phrase, if inserted at the beginning of sentence 10 (reproduced below), best fits the
context?
The second Black woman dentist in New York.
a. Thus, she was only
b. However, she was
c. Later, Bessie became
d. In fact, she became
e. And actually
Comma Splice
Studies demonstrate the beneficial effects of keeping pets, many senior housing centers are
adopting strays form local humane societies.
a. Studies demonstrate the beneficial effects of keeping pets, many
b. Though studies demonstrate the beneficial effects from keeping pets, many
c. Because studies demonstrate the beneficial effects of keeping pets, many
d. Studies demonstrate the beneficial effects of keeping pets, and many
e. Studies demonstrate that there are beneficial effects from keeping pets, therefore many
North Salem Grammar Guide 9
Punctuation
Period
.
Periods are utilized to separate sentences that aren’t questions or exclamations.
At times, writers may choose to separate sentences using semicolons or colons to reveal a direct
relationship between two ideas (see definitions below).
More sophisticated editing techniques often reduce the number of sentences (and therefore the
number of periods) through coordination and subordination (see “Sentence Types”).
Exclamation Point !
Exclamation points are used as attention-getters that change the flow of a paragraph
momentarily.
In rhetoric, exclamations can be used to thrust emphasis or reinforce tone. Exclamations should
be used sparingly. Overuse can be distracting and blunt effectiveness.
Question Mark
?
Question marks are used at the conclusion of interrogative sentences. Simply stated, if the
sentence asks a question, there should be a question mark at the end of it.
Questions can be utilized rhetorically to introduce a topic, transition from one idea to the next, or
draw an open-ended conclusion. Some arguments utilize question and answer as a structural
technique.
Comma
,
Commas are used before coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, yet, so) to “glue” two complete
sentences together. This is called coordination—when two independent clauses are joined
together to form a compound sentence.
Commas separate “cliff-hangers”—introductory groups of words that contain a subject and a
verb but are not complete a complete thought, and therefore are not considered a complete
sentence. “Cliff-hangers” leave you hanging because they often start with these words: after,
although, as, because, before, if, since, unless, when, and while.
Grammatically speaking, these words are considered subordinate conjunctions, and when they
are placed at the beginning of a clause, that clause becomes a subordinate (or dependent) clause.
When joined with an independent clause (one that can stand alone as a sentence), a complex
sentence is formed. A comma is always used when a subordinate clause precedes and
independent clause.
Commas are used to set off a group of words that interrupts a sentence to provide additional
information that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence (otherwise known as an
appositive phrase). Commas come before and after the group of words.
Commas are used to separate three or more items in a series.
Commas should be used after transitional words or phrases such as first and therefore and for
instance when these words introduce a sentence.
Put commas after introductory words that tell when.
Commas are used to separate introductory or follow-up words for a direct quotation within a
single sentence. Note in the exemplars the placement of the commas with regard to the quotation
marks.
Commas separate words such as however, therefore, and nevertheless (conjunctive adverbs) that
interrupt a sentence.
North Salem Grammar Guide 10
Apostrophe
’
Apostrophes are used to show ownership; they make nouns and indefinite pronouns (e.g.,
anybody’s, everybody’s) possessive. Definite pronouns (e.g., its, ours, yours, theirs) do not need
possessive apostrophes.
Semicolon
;
Semicolons are used instead of a period to join closely independent clauses (simple sentences).
The use of a semicolon rather than a period implies but does not define (as a coordinating
conjunction such as and, or but, so, yet would do) a relationship between the two clauses.
A coordinating conjunction is not used immediately before or after a semicolon. A conjunctive
adverb (however, therefore, hence) following the semicolon (set off by a comma) can be used to
clarify the relationship between the two clauses. The first word following a semicolon should
not be capitalized unless it is a proper noun.
Semicolons can also be used to join items in a series when one or more of those items has a
comma within it.
Colon
:
Colons are used before introducing a list. A complete sentence must precede a colon.
Colons are used in academic essays and research papers when a complete sentence introduces a
quote that is also a complete sentence.
Colons can be used rhetorically to set off an appositive (when you “rename” a preceding noun)
for dramatic effect. Again, a complete sentence must precede the colon.
Parentheses
( )
Parentheses are used to enclose interrupting words that provide further identification, clarity, or
information regarding what preceded the parentheses.
Parentheses are used within the text of research papers to enclose documentation information.
Parenthetical citations usually contain an author’s last name and a page number, and follow a
direct quotation, paraphrase or summary of information or ideas from the source.
Parentheses can be used in rhetorical and literary analysis essays to list examples of a common
idea or analytical point. Contrary to the dash, the implication of listing examples in parentheses
is expediency rather than emphasis.
Dash
—
The dash is used much like the parentheses (to set off parenthetical information or commentary).
Unlike the parentheses, which minimize the importance of parenthetical material, dashes
emphasize parenthetical material.
Brackets and the Ellipsis Mark
[…]
Brackets and an ellipsis mark are utilized in essays and research papers to indicate that a word or
words have been omitted from quoted material. The ellipsis indicates the omission; the brackets
indicate that the omission was yours and not native to the quote.
Hyphen
Hyphens are used to form compound numbers or fractions (numbers that are two words).
Hyphens are also used to join compound adjectives (single adjectives that are two or more
words), but only when the compound adjective precedes the word (noun) it is describing.
Quotation Marks
“ ”
Quotation marks are used to enclose a direct quotation: a person’s exact words.
Explanatory words preceding, interrupting, or following a quotation (in the same sentence)
should be separated with a comma. (Note in the examples when commas and end punctuation is
placed inside and outside the quotation marks.)
North Salem Grammar Guide 11
NOUNS
person, place, thing, or idea
Child designates a person; therefore, child is a noun.
Similarly, democracy designates an idea; therefore, democracy is a noun.
Nouns may be made plural, usually with the suffix -s or -es, as in books and foxes.
Nouns show ownership with the addition of an apostrophe and, sometimes, an additional -s, as in
a book's pages, twenty students' essays.
Common nouns such as school, business, or person designate an entire class.
Proper nouns, on the other hand, designate a specific example of a class: Towson University,
Black and Decker Company, Joe. Proper nouns are capitalized.
Functions of Nouns
Subject (S) - a noun or pronoun partnered with a predicate verb.
A subject
1. does an action with an action verb
2. exists with a verb of being
North Salem Grammar Guide 12
Object of Preposition (OP) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" after a
preposition in a prepositional phrase.
Direct Object (DO) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" after an action verb. A
direct object "receives" or is the "object" of the action.
Subjective Complement (SC) - a noun, pronoun, or adjective that renames or describes
(equals) the subject after a verb of being or a linking verb.
Objective Complement (OC) - a noun, pronoun, or adjective that renames or describes (equals)
the direct object.
Test for OC: insert "to be" between the DO and the OC
North Salem Grammar Guide 13
Appositive (App) - a noun or pronoun that renames another noun; An appositive is usually
placed next to the noun it renames..
Gourmet renames the noun Joe. Therefore, gourmet is an appositive of Joe.
When an appositive is not placed next to the noun it renames, the appositive is called a delayed
appositive.
A delayed appositive may rename the word it in some sentence constructions.
In the above sentence, the appositive to meet you renames it.
It (to meet you) is a pleasure.
In this sentence, pleasure is the subjective complement of it.
Therefore, it = pleasure = to meet you.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.
Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).
KINDS OF PRONOUNS
A. Personal Pronouns:
North Salem Grammar Guide 14
SINGULAR
1st
person
2nd
person
3rd
person
B.
PLURAL
subjective
objective
possessive
subjective
objective
possessive
I
me
my, mine
we
us
our, ours
you
you
your, yours
you
you
your, yours
his
her, hers
its
they
them
their, theirs
he
him
she
her
it
it
Demonstrative Pronouns:
C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns
These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there in the sentence.
Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used:
theirselves
theirself
hisself
ourself
D. Indefinite Pronouns:
Singular:
one
each
(n)either
Examples:
someone
somebody
something
anyone
anybody
anything
no one
nobody
nothing
Somebody is coming to dinner.
Neither of us believes a word Harry says.
Plural:
Examples:
Both are expected at the airport at the same time.
Several have suggested canceling the meeting.
everyone
everybody
everything
North Salem Grammar Guide 15
Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:
Examples:
Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.
Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.
Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.
Examples:
The accident is nobody’s fault.
How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.
one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most
Note the differences:
Each person has a chance.
(Each is a determiner describing person.)
Each has a chance.
(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
Both lawyers pled their cases well.
(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)
Both were in the room.
(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
E. Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require more than a “yes” or “no”
answer.
Examples:
What do you want?
Who is there?
Note: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.
Use that and which to refer to things.
North Salem Grammar Guide 16
VERBS
Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that show action or state of being.
The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use -ed and -en to form their simple past tense
and past participles. (e.g. talked, has talked)
Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent pattern in creating their -ed and/or en forms. A list of the major irregular verbs is shown below.
Verbs may be divided into three types:
A.
Action verbs - show an action -- either physical or mental
B.
Verbs of being (forms of be - is, are, was, were, has/have/had been, will be) - show a
state of existence:
C.
**Linking verbs - link a subject with its complement
North Salem Grammar Guide 17
D.
E.
(A subjective complement "completes" / "equals" the subject.)
Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound, grow, seem, remain
Action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.
A. A transitive verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
Example:
B. An intransitive verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct object.
Example:
ADJECTIVES
Traditionally, adjectives are defined as words that describe nouns or pronouns. When they
describe nouns or pronouns, adjectives typically answer the following questions:
What kind?
For example, in the phrase
Which one?
How many?
Tall is an adjective describing the noun man.
Tall answers the question "which man?" or "what kind of man?"
Similarly, in the phrase,
North Salem Grammar Guide 18
Easy is an adjective describing the noun assignment.
Easy answers the question, "what kind of assignment?"
Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they describe, as in the examples, tall man and
easy assignment, above.
Thus, one may identify an adjective by using the following word-order test:
Adjectives may also follow the noun they describe.
Example:
Finally, adjectives may follow a verb of being or a linking verb, thus completing the noun
subject
Examples
Like nouns, adjectives are often recognizable by their suffixes.
Endings such as -ous -ful -ish -able usually designate adjectives.
Examples:
Comparative and superlative forms
Single-syllable adjectives use -er and -est endings to designate comparative and superlative forms:
Examples:
North Salem Grammar Guide 19
Adjectives of two or more syllables use more and most for comparative and superlative forms.
Examples:
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